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by Andy Woods

Muchcontroversy surrounds the identification of Babylon in Revelation 17-18. Thispaper will survey the four most prominent approaches for identifying Babylon inRevelation 17-18. These approaches include viewing Babylon as Jerusalem, Rome,an end time religious system, and futuristic, literal, rebuilt Babylon. I leantoward the last option. For each option, I will follow a two-fold approach.First, I will allow each view to speak for itself by presenting the methodologyembraced by its proponents. Second, I will raise objections and potentialweaknesses.

The first option involves identifying Babylon inRevelation 17-18 as the city of Jerusalem.[1]Most of the proponents of the Babylon = Jerusalem position are either full orpartial preterists[2] who see theevents described in Revelation 4-22 as predicting the Jewish War of A.D. 66-70 as well as the destruction of Jerusalem inA.D. 70.[3]

The first piece of evidence used in support of this viewis Revelation's predictions that its prophecies will come to pass "shortly" or"quickly" (Rev 1:1; 2:16; 3:11; 11:14; 22:6, 7, 12, 20) and are "near" or "athand" (Rev 1:3; 22:10) or are "about to" take place (Rev 1:19; 3:10). These"timing texts" prevent Babylon from being interpreted as referring to somethingcenturies after the date of the original writing. Advocates say such alimitation at least narrows the possibilities of the identity of Babylon sothat the interpreter must consider Jerusalem, which was an immediate oppressorof God's people at the time John wrote the Apocalypse.[4]

Jerusalemadvocates also note that many commentators have observed that Revelationappears to be a reworking of the Olivet Discourse.[5] This allows them to conclude that Revelation isabout the approaching judgment upon Israel and Jerusalem because Christ'sprophecy on the Mount of Olives is concerned with this same subject (Matt24:15, 20, 34).[6] Thus,Jerusalem advocates maintain that it should come as no surprise that the harlotof Revelation 17-18 is identified with Jerusalem because the Olivet Discourseand its fuller exposition in Revelation concerns the imminent destruction uponIsrael and Jerusalem.

Astronger argument used by Jerusalem proponents involves the identification ofthe phrase "the great city" as used in Revelation 17:18. Jerusalem advocatescontend that the only way to properly identify this city is to observe how thephrase "the great city" appears earlier in Revelation. The first reference isin Revelation 11:8, which says, "And theirdead bodies will lie in the street of the great city whichspiritually is called Sodom and Egypt, where also our Lord was crucified."Here, the city of Jerusalem is in view because it refers to the city whereChrist was crucified. Thus, Revelation 11:8 applies the phrase "the great city"to Jerusalem. Therefore, Revelation 17:18 must refer to Jerusalem aswell.[7]

Jerusalem advocates also point out numerous descriptorsof Babylon that could only apply to Jerusalem. For example, the harlot imagery(Rev 17:1-2) was used most frequently of Israel's covenant unfaithfulness inthe Old Testament (Isa 1:21; Jer 2:20-24, 30-33; 3:1-3, 8; Ezek 16; 23; Hos9:1). Gentry points out that the color and adornment of the harlot inRevelation 17:4 reflects the Jewish priestly colors of scarlet, purple, andgold (Exod 28:33). These same colors were also found in the tapestry of thetemple. [8]

Tobegin with, to refer Jerusalem to Babylon is "unprecedented."[9]While Scripture typically relates Jerusalem to the people of God, it relatesBabylon to the world.[10]Although Sodom and Egypt have precedent for being used as a metaphor forJerusalem (11:8), Babylon is never used in this way.[11]Also, there is no example in Jewish literature of the name "Babylon" being usedfor Jerusalem.[12]

Moreover,if the Babylon = Jerusalem hypothesis is correct then Jerusalem will never berebuilt again. Revelation 18:21 describes the permanent destruction of Babylonwhen it says, "Thus with violence thegreat city Babylon shall be thrown down, and shall not be found anymore." Thus,according to the Babylon = Jerusalem view, Jerusalem was destroyed in A.D. 70 and will never berebuilt again. Yet, how can this be a description of Jerusalem when Scripturerepeatedly speaks of its return to prominence during the millennial reign (Isa2:3; Zech 14:16; Rev 20:9)? Scripture is plain that God still has a future planfor Jerusalem and yet this view seems to teach the opposite.[13]

Furthermore,the description of the harlot in Revelation 17-18 seems to communicate herheavy involvement with idolatry.[14]This seems to be communicated by terms such as "spiritual adultery," "uncleanthings," and "abominations." This is an odd description of first centuryJerusalem in light of the fact that the city of that era was strictlymonotheistic and never compromised with the idolatry of their pagan neighbors.[15]In addition, while idealist, historicist, and futurist interpretations ofRevelation can be sustained regardless of whether one assigns a Neronic orDomitianic date to John's Apocalypse, the preterist interpretation advocated byGentry, Chilton, and Russell does not enjoy the same luxury. Because Revelation17-18 obviously cannot be a prophecy about the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 if these prophecies were written 25 yearslater, the Jerusalem view has a tendency to rise or fall depending on whetherone assigns an early or late date to the book.

It is interesting to observe Jerusalem advocateseither expressly or tacitly admitting their dependence upon an early date. Uponreviewing the Revelation commentary called Days of Vengeance of fellow preterist David Chilton, Gentry noted,"If it could be demonstrated that Revelation were written 25 years after theFall of Jerusalem, Chilton's entire labor goes up in smoke."[16]Needless to say, Jerusalem advocates must go out of their way to demonstrateRevelation's early date. This explains why Gentry devoted his doctoraldissertation to the subject of Revelation's early date.[17] The problem with the Jerusalem view'sdependence upon assigning an early date to Revelation is that most modern NewTestament scholars will not date the book that early.[18]Most of the external and internal arguments for Revelation's early date havealready been successfully rebutted.[19]Therefore, the Jerusalem view's dependence upon an early date places it in aprecarious situation.[20]

Finally,the Jerusalem view has problems handling the global language found inRevelation 17-18 and Matthew 24. For example, the waters on which the womansits (Rev 17:1) are later defined as peoples, multitudes, nations, and tongues(Rev 17:15). Except for the replacement of tribes with multitudes, these arethe same categories that are mentioned in Revelation 5:9 regarding those forwhom Christ died.[21]Thus, viewing the categories of Revelation 17:15 as pertaining to the localsituation of A.D. 70 logically leads to the conclusion thatChrist only died for those within the same localized sphere rather than thewhole world. Because of their prior understanding that Revelation pertains tothe destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70,Jerusalem advocates are forced to allegorize Revelation's global language intolocal language. Because they see Revelation as a fuller exposition of theOlivet Discourse, Jerusalem advocates also face the problem of handling globaland futuristic language in the Olivet Discourse (Matt 24:15, 21-22, 27, 29, 30-31).[22]

Revelation'sso-called "timing texts" do not limit the scope of its fulfillment to the firstcentury. It is possible to understand the "timing texts" qualitatively ratherthan chronologically. In other words, these texts could indicate the manner ofChrist's return rather than when He will return. Thus, when the action comes,it will come suddenly with great rapidity.[23]Moreover, the action is to be regarded as impending as if it could be fulfilledat any moment.[24] The NewTestament allows for such a usage. For example, while it is true that Scriptureoften uses "shortly" or "quickly" (tacos) in a chronological sense to indicate"when" (1 Timothy 3:14), Scripture also uses the same word in a qualitativesense to indicate "how." For instance, Acts 22:18 uses tacos to indicate mannerwhen it says, "Make haste, and get out of Jerusalem quickly, because they willnot accept your testimony about me." Inaddition, the Septuagint often uses tavcos qualitatively inprophetic passages.[25]

Finally,the argument that "the great city" of Revelation 17-18 is identical to "thegreat city" of Jerusalem found earlier in Revelation 11:8 represents ahermeneutical error known as "illegitimate totality transfer." This error arises when the meaning of a word orphrase as derived from its use elsewhere is then automatically read into thesame word or phrase in a foreign context.[26]Jerusalem advocates commit such an error when they define "the great city" inRevelation 17-18 from how the same phrase is used in totally different contextselsewhere in Revelation. Such a hermeneutical approach neglects the possibilitythat Revelation could be highlighting two "great cities," both Jerusalem and Babylon.

Ascrutiny of some of the parallels between Revelation 17-18 and Old TestamentJerusalem used by Jerusalem advocates demonstrates that they are not asconvincing as perhaps they initially appear. For example, the harlot imagery(Rev 17:1, 5) need not automatically refer back to God's accusations of Israelas an unfaithful harlot. Thomas notes that the angel describing the woman usesthe term pornh (harlotry) rather than moiceia (adultery). The latter word ismore restrictive "implying a previous marital relationship." Although pornh caninclude adultery, it is broader. Thus, it is possible that the "womanrepresents all false religions of all time" rather than just the spiritualunfaithfulness of God's covenant people Israel.[27]Also, harlot imagery is often used to depict Gentile cites and therefore neednot uniquely identify Jerusalem (Isa 23:16-17; Nah 3:4).

The most common approach among NewTestament scholarship is to identify Babylon of Revelation 17-18 as Rome. Bothhistoricists[28] andfuturists employ this approach.[29]

TheBabylon = Rome view is largely built upon the presupposition that the nameBabylon was a common way that early Christians had of disguising their mentionof Rome in order to insulate themselves from Roman persecution. Babylon andRome are comparable in a variety of ways. For example, both were centers forworld empires. Moreover, both captured Jerusalem and destroyed the temple.[30]

Romeadvocates rely upon the symbolic nature of the Book of Revelation. Romeproponents Pate and Hays explain:

The extensive use ofsymbolism and figurative language by the apostle John to convey specificstatements at least opens the door to the possibility that the terms Babylon may be symbolic as well. In fact, sincepractically all other terms in Revelation 17-18 are symbols (harlot, beast,horns, etc.), understanding the term Babylon in a symbolic sense would reflecta more consistent interpretation of this passage than that of interpreting thisterm alone as literal reference.[31]

Romeproponents further point out that Babylon should be understood in more of asymbolic rather than literal way based upon the use of the word "mystery" (musthrion)in Revelation 17:5. Robertson believes that musthrion is part of the woman'sfull name "Mystery Babylon the Great." He also believes that the word "mystery"connotes the notion of mysticism or symbolism. Thus, he concludes, "the nameBabylon is to be interpreted mystically or spiritually (cf. pneumatikws 11:8)for Rome."[32]

Theassumption that the early Christians commonly used the name Babylon for Rome isbuilt around two pieces of evidence. These two pieces of evidence includePeter's mention of Babylon as his place of writing in 1 Peter 5:13 andreferences in extra biblical literature equating Rome with Babylon. Regarding 1Peter 5:13, because tradition places Peter in Rome at the end of his life, Romeadvocates believe that Peter was speaking of Rome rather than literal Babylonin 1 Peter 5:13. [33] Regardingthe references in extra biblical literature equating Babylon and Rome, both theSibylline Oracles (V. 143,159-60, 434) and the Apocalypse of Baruch (10:1-3; 11:1; 67:7)use Babylon as a code name for Rome. Because Rome advocates believe that theseChristian writings were composed during the same general time period as John'scomposition of the Apocalypse, it is likely that John was also drawing from thecommon Christian understanding that Babylon was a code word for Rome whenwriting Revelation 17-18.[34]

Itis also assumed that the seven hills of Revelation 17:9 identify the topographyof the ancient city of Rome. Because literature of the ancient world containsdozens of references to the seven hills of Rome,[35]the ancient city of Rome was universally known as the city of the seven hills.[36]Thus, such a topographical reference would immediately suggest Rome in theminds of John's original audience.[37] In addition, the notion that John'saudience would have understood the imagery of Revelation 17 as referring to thetopography of Rome seems strengthened by the discovery of the Dea Roma Coin minted in A.D.71 in Asia Minor. The Roman goddess Roma featured on the coin contains many striking similarities to thewoman portrayed in Revelation 17.[38]Rome proponents also build their case upon Revelation 17:18, which says, "And the woman whom you saw is that great citywhich reigns over the kings of the earth." Rome advocates maintain that such adescription would have been immediately identifiable as Rome to John's originalaudience because it was the city ruling the known world at the time John wrote.

Rome advocates also point out descriptions of Babylonthat apply to Rome. For example, the water imagery (Rev 17:1) is reminiscent ofthe goddess on the Dea Roma Coin who was seated by the rivers of the Tiber River.[39]Aune sees the reference to the woman's drunkenness with the blood of the saints(Rev 17:6; 18:24) as descriptive of the numerous Christian martyrdoms perpetratedat the hands of the Roman Empire.[40]

Mostinterpreters who identify the harlot as Rome also identify the beast as Rome.[41]This identification is due to the dependence of the image of the beast ofRevelation upon Daniel 7. The beast of Revelation and the fourth beast ofDaniel 7 are both noted for their blasphemies and protruding ten horns. Thus,to the extent that many commentators identify the fourth beast of Daniel 7 withRome, the beast of Revelation must be identified with Rome as well. Therefore,the identification of the harlot as Rome is problematic because one ends upwith two images for Rome: the beast and the harlot.[42]If these two characters represent the same entity, why are they depicted as twoseparate entities in verse 11 and 18 of chapter 17? Why is the beast punishedin chapter 19 after the harlot has already been destroyed in chapter 18? Ifthese two characters represent the same entity, how are they able to interactwith one another? Revelation 17:3 depicts the woman as riding on the beast. Howcan Rome ride upon Rome? Revelation 17:16-17 depicts the beast destroying thewoman. How can Rome destroy Rome?[43]

Moreover,because at the time of writing Babylon remained a viable city, "it would beconfusing to John's first century readers, as well as to later generations, forhim to write so much about Babylon when he really meant Rome."[44]In addition, the geographic situation depicted in Revelation 18 has made somecommentators reluctant to identify Babylon as Rome. Some commentaries observethat Rome was not a major seaport or trading city.[45]

To begin with, it is odd for Pate and Hays to contend that theirapproach of identifying Babylon as Rome takes into consideration Revelation'ssymbolic character while they simultaneously interpret other aspects ofRevelation 17-18 with extreme literalness. For example, Rome advocatesinterpret the seven hills (Rev 17:9) literally. It is interesting to note thatalthough the Babylon view is typically labeled as "overly literalistic," mostBabylon proponents do not take the seven hills literally. Thus, at least onthis point, it seems that the Babylon interpretation rather than the Romeinterpretation better takes into account Revelation's symbolic character. Romeproponents also interpret the word "city" (Rev 17:18) literally. Despite thefact that some Rome advocates believe that their approach best takes intoaccount Revelation's symbolic character, it appears that these same interpretershave no problem vacillating toward literalism when they find it necessary tofurnish further support for their view.

Moreover,it is debatable whether musthrion in Revelation 17:5 has the nuance that A.T.Robertson attaches to it. Several issues seem to be at stake.[46]The first question is whether musthrion should be interpreted as being inapposition with ovnoma? If not, Johnwould be saying that the name on the woman's forehead is "Mystery Babylon theGreat."[47]If so, John would be saying that the name "Babylon the Great" written upon thewoman's forehead is a mystery. Although most Rome proponents prefer viewing musthrionas not being in apposition to ovnoma, the evidence seems to favor the second option. Walvoordobserves:

The word mystery is a descriptivereference to the title, not part of the title itself as implied by thecapitalization in the Authorized Version. This can be seen by comparing thename given to the woman in 16:19 and 18:2.[48]

Thus, the repetition ofthe woman's title as "Babylon the Great" (14:8; 16:19; 18:2) rather than"Mystery Babylon the Great" favors the appositional relationship.[49]The appositional view is strengthened upon recognizing that the gender of musthrionand ovnoma are neuter and the gender of "Babylon" isfeminine.[50]

Second,does musthrion refer to mysticism or simply new revelation? Although most Romeproponents take the word in the first sense, the New Testament evidence seemsto support the latter sense. According to Vine

In the N.T, it [musthrion]denotes, not the mysterious (as with the Eng. word), but that which, beingoutside the range of unassisted natural apprehension, can be made known only byDivine revelation, and is made known in a manner and at a time appointed byGod, and to those who are illumined by His Spirit.[51]

Third,can musthrion of Revelation 17:5 be equated with "spiritually" (pneumatikws) ofRevelation 11:8 to support the notion that Babylon of Revelation 17:5 deservesthe same type of spiritual interpretation that is given to Jerusalem inRevelation 11:8? Thomas believes that such a comparison is inappropriate. "Musthrionis a noun, not an adverb like pneumatikws." In addition, musthrion comes from adifferent root than pneumatikws.[52]Therefore, John, in Revelation 17:5, does not seem to be saying that thewoman's name is to be understood mystically or symbolically. Rather, he seemsto be simply saying that the revelation of Babylon's dominant role in the endtimes is a previously unknown truth now revealed.

Furthermore,it is also debatable that the Christians of John's day commonly used Rome as acode for Babylon. The evidence favoring such a code is built upon uncertainassumptions. For example, it is possible that Peter is referring to literalBabylon in 1 Peter 5:13 rather than Rome. According to Alford, "we are not tofind an allegorical meaning in a proper name thus simply used in the midst ofsimple and matter-of-fact sayings."[53]According to Gromacki:

There is no reason tosuspect that Peter asserted a symbolic name into a non-symbolic context. Thenormal reading of the passage would cause the reader to think of the literalreading on the Euphrates.[54]

In addition, if oneinterprets the geographic areas in the greeting section of the letter literally(1:1), then consistency seems to dictate that the geographic area mentioned inthe conclusion of the epistle (5:13) deserves the same literal interpretation.[55]

Whileit is true that there is no evidence outside of the epistle of Peter's visit toBabylon, there is no evidence to contradict it either.[56]Because of the Babylonian Captivity, a large number of Jews continued to residein that area. Not only did the Magi come from that region (Matt 2:2),[57]but pilgrims from Mesopotamia also came to hear Peter's sermon on the day ofPentecost (Acts 2:9).[58]Fruchtenbaum argues that at the time Peter's epistle was written, Babylonia hadthe largest concentration of Jews living outside the land and was also thecenter of Judaism outside the land. The Babylonian Talmud would later bedeveloped from this area. Because Peter was the apostle to the circumcised (Gal2:8), it would have been a logical place for him to travel. UnderstandingBabylon as the place of writing of Peter's epistle might also explain the heavyJewishness of the letter.[59]

Thenotion that early Christians used "Babylon" to disguise their reference to Romeis built also upon the Sibylline Oracles (V. 143, 159-60, 434) and the Apocalypse of Baruch (10:1-3; 11:1; 67:7), which both use Babylon as a code name for Rome.However, the hypothesis that such a practice was common in John's day is onlyworkable to the extent that these writings were composed during the time periodwhen John wrote. This assumption is not necessarily true. Klijn dates the Apocalypseof Baruch in the second century.[60]Although Collins appears to lean towards a first century dating of Book 5 ofthe Sibylline Oracles, heremains open to the suggestion that the Sibylline Oracles as a whole can be dated in the early years ofthe second century.[61]Kreitzer accepts the reign of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138)as a date for the composition of Sibylline Oracles 5.[62]Thomas dates both the Apocalypse of Baruch and the Sibylline Oracles in the second century.[63]Interestingly, Thomas also indicates "Tertullian late in the second century isthe first church father to use 'Babylon' as a name for Rome."[64]In sum, given the notions that Peter could have been referring to literalBabylon in 1 Peter 5:13 and that the extra biblical Christian writings usingBabylon as a code word for Rome may have been composed after John wrote theApocalypse, it is difficult to dogmatically assert that John was employing thewell entrenched practice of his day that Babylon refers to Rome.[65]

Romeadvocates also appeal to the seven hills (Rev 17:9) as descriptive of Rome'stopography, the "great city which reigns over the kings of the earth" (Rev17:18) as a descriptive phrase for Rome that any first century person wouldrecognize, and similarities between the Dea Roma Coin and Revelation 17-18. Rome advocates usethese items to support the assertion that John's description of Babylon wouldbe understood as Rome by John's original audience. However, the assumption thatJohn's apocalypse was written exclusively for the purpose of being understoodby the people of his day is open to question.[66]Walvoord explains:

One of the commonassumptions of those who reject the futurist position is that the Apocalypse isthe creation of John's thinking and was understandable by him in hisgenerationThe difficulty with this point of view is twofold: (1) Prophecy, asgiven in the Scripture, was not necessarily understandable by the writer or hisgeneration, as illustrated in the case of Daniel (Dan 12:4, 9). It isquestionable whether the great prophets of the Old Testament always understoodwhat they were writing (cf. 1 Peter 1:10-11). (2) It is of the nature ofprophecy that often it cannot be understood until the time of the generationwhich achieves fulfillment. Theassumption, therefore, that the book of Revelation was understandable in thefirst generation or that it was intended to be understood by that generation iswithout real basis.[67]

Evenif Revelation was intended to be understood by John's original audience, it isdoubtful that the seven hills of Revelation 17:9 are descriptive of Rome'stopography. First, the identification of the hills calls for special wisdom(17:9). Why should such a well-known geographical locale require specialtheological and symbolic insight for proper identification?[68]Second, it is unclear that John's audience would have automatically understoodthe reference in 17:9 to the seven hills of Rome. Because every otheroccurrence to ovros in Revelationrefers to a mountain rather than a "hill,"[69]Ewing advises caution before automatically viewing 17:9 as a reference to theseven "hills" of Rome.[70]Had John wanted to communicate "hill" instead of using oros he could have usedthe word bounos, which means "hill."[71]Furthermore, Beagley observes that the historical evidence only places the"seven hills" language in the Western Mediterranean area. Thus, it may beunwarranted to presume that Rome as "the city of the seven hills" would be theshared understanding in Asia Minor.[72]Third, if the reference to the city on the seven hills was universally wellknown in John's day as a reference to Rome, how would the use of this referenceinsulate John or his readers from Roman persecution?[73]

Fourth,the seven mountains (17:9) are seven heads (17:7) that belong to the beast(17:3, 7; 13:1) and not thewoman named Babylon. Thus, these seven heads or mountains really have nothingto do with the entity Babylon at all. It is possible to argue that the woman isstill associated with the seven hills because she is sitting on them. However,it is better to see this as referring to the woman's control rather than herlocation. Revelation 17:1 portrays the woman sitting on many waters. Verse 15explains that the waters represent peoples, multitudes, nations, and tongues.Thus, Revelation 17:1, 15 show the harlot's control over the entire world.Furthermore, Revelation 17:3 depicts the woman as sitting on the beast, whichagain indicates control rather than location. Thus, if the harlot's sittingindicates control rather than location twice in chapter 17, then consistencywould seem to dictate that the harlot sitting on the seven hills in 17:9 wouldalso indicate control rather than location.[74]

Fifth,the reference to the seven hills is better understood as referring to sevenkingdoms. In order to correctly understand the symbolism of the sevenmountains, it is best to look to John's Jewish heritage rather than the Gentileculture of his day. Thus, Revelation must be interpreted in light of the OldTestament.[75] Such anapproach makes sense because 278 of Revelation's 404 verses allude to the OldTestament.[76] The OldTestament frequently uses the term "mountain" to refer to a kingdom or empire(Ps 30:7; 68:15-16; Isa 2:2; 41:15; Jer 51:25; Dan 2:35, 45; Hab 3:6, 10; Zech4:7).[77]

Thistype of imagery seems to be employed in Revelation 17:9 because verse 10explains that the seven mountains are a metaphor for seven kings. This symbolicunderstanding of the seven mountains seems buttressed by the fact that theharlot sits on or beside seven mountains (17:9) just as she sits on or besidethe many waters (17:1). Since the waters are symbolic of peoples, multitudes,nations, and tongues (17:15), consistency seems to dictate that the sevenmountains are symbolic as well.[78]This non-literal interpretation of the seven hills is also strengthened by thefact that the other references to ovros in Revelation are sometimes to be understood non-literally aswell (Rev 8:8).

AlthoughRevelation 17:10 uses the word "kings," kingdoms or national entities opposingGod's people throughout world history is probably the intended meaning.Expositors face numerous difficulties when they interpret the content ofRevelation 17:10 as seven kings of Roman history. A lack of consensus existsconcerning whether to include in the count those kings that reigned a brieftime and where the count should begin.[79]Consequently, Aune enumerates nine different schemes for counting the kings.[80]These interpretive problems are avoided when the seven kings of Revelation17:10 are understood as kingdoms opposing God' people throughout world history.In the book of Daniel, the terms kings and kingdoms are used interchangeably(Dan 2:37-39; 7:17, 23).[81]Because Revelation draws heavily from Daniel, it is likely that John inRevelation 17:10 is employing this same practice.[82]

Theparallels between Revelation 17-18 and Rome are not as convincing as they firstappear. For example, the water imagery of 17:1 seems inapplicable to Rome sinceRome had no seaport and more applicable to Babylon which was located on thebank of the Euphrates. Furthermore, the Christian martyrdoms supposedly alludedto in Revelation 17:6 and 18:24 do not uniquely identify Rome due to the factthat Israel (Matt 23:35; Acts 7:52) and historical Babylon (Jer 51:35, 36, 49) werealso causes of such martyrdoms.

Yetanother approach to identifying Babylon of Revelation 17-18 is to view Babylonas an end time religious system that will dominate the world during the comingtribulation period.[83]While this coming religious system may include prominent religiousinstitutions, its scope will go far beyond particular religious institutionsand instead encompass the ecumenical movement thus forming an all inclusiveworld religion. This religious system is called Babylon because it opposesGod's purposes and people as did ancient Babylon in Old Testament times.[84]

Proponents of this position also seem toadvocate a well-defined eschatological scenario. On the one hand, the Babylonof Revelation 17 is the religious system that the antichrist destroys mid-waythrough the tribulation period. On the other hand, the Babylon of Revelation 18is distinct from the Babylon of chapter 17 because it is commercial andpolitical in scope and will be destroyed toward the end of the tribulation.[85]

Despite the widespread acceptance of this view at the popular level,it has deficiencies. First, the harlot imagery of Revelation 17:1-5,[86]which is so frequently employed throughout Scripture to depict man's infidelityto God, convinces Walvoord that the city in 17:18 is not a literal city butrather a religious system.[87]However, this assumption seems unfounded. The Old Testament uses harlot imageryto depict the Gentile cities of Tyre (Isa 23:16-17) and Nineveh (Nah 3:4) whilenever hinting that these cities are not meant to be understood literally.Similarly, the harlot imagery in Revelation 17 should not deter interpretersfrom understanding the city in Revelation 17:18 literally as well.

Second, the same phrase "great city" that is used in Revelation17:18 to depict Babylon is also repeatedly used in chapter 18 (vv. 10, 16, 18,19, 21). Moreover, the same sort of harlot imagery that describes the city inchapter 17 is also employed in chapter 18 (vv. 3, 9). Yet, despite thesesimilarities, Walvoord interprets the city in Revelation 17 non-literally[88]while simultaneously interpreting the city in Revelation 18 literally.[89]

Third,a strong exegetical case can be made to support the proposition that Revelation17 and 18 should be viewed as a unit speaking of one Babylon rather than twoseparate units speaking of two Babylons. The notion of viewing Revelation 17and 18 as a unit is buttressed by noting the similarities between the chapters.[90]Both chapters refer to Babylon as having the same name (17:5; 18:2), being acity (17:18; 18:10), wearing the same clothing (17:4; 18:6), holding a cup(17:4; 18:6), fornicating with kings (17:2; 18:3), being drunk with wine ofimmorality (17:2; 18:3), persecuting believers (17:6; 18:24), experiencingdestruction by fire (17:16; 18:8), and experiencing destruction by God (17:17;18:5, 8).[91]

A final option involves interpreting Babylon ofRevelation 17-18 as the futuristic literal city of Babylon on the Euphrates.[92]Proponents of this position believe that because the Old Testament and NewTestament prophecies regarding Babylon remain largely unfulfilled, the world'scenter of power must once again return to the ancient city of Babylon in orderfor biblical prophecies to be fulfilled.

A key ingredient of the literal approach is therecognition that the harlot of Revelation 17 represents a city. Thisidentification becomes obvious upon observing Revelation 17:18, which says, "And the woman whom you saw is that great citywhich reigns over the kings of the earth." Thus, Dyer correctly observes,"Whatever else is said about the harlot, she is first a city, not anecclesiastical system."[93]Although the recurring harlotry imagery (Rev 17:1, 2, 4, 15, 16; 18:3, 7) hasled many interpreters to the conclusion that Babylon is a false religioussystem because infidelity is frequently used in Scripture to depict man'srebellion against God (Isa 1:21; Jer 2:20; Ezekiel 16; 23), harlotry is alsoused in Scripture to personify individual Gentile cites in rebellion againstGod. The Old Testament uses such imagery to portray the spiritual rebellion ofTyre (Isa 23:16-17) and Nineveh (Nah 3:4). A similar understanding of harlotryseems to be in operation in Revelation 17-18 because the harlot is also a city(17:18).[94]

In addition to the fact that the woman is a city(17:18), she is also named Babylon (17:5). As already discussed, it is best toview the syntactical role of musthrion (17:5) as one of apposition to ovnoma rather than part of the harlot's name. Itwas also mentioned earlier that it is best to understand musthrion as connotingthe notion of revealing new truth rather than communicating the idea ofmysticism, spiritualism, or symbolism. In sum, Revelation 17 teaches that theharlot is a city named Babylon.

Although not all names in Revelation are meant tobe understood literally (Rev 2:20), it does seem to be a general rule that thenames of cities and geographical regions are literal. For example, most interpreterstypically understand the following places and cities in Revelation literally:Patmos (1:9), Ephesus (2:1), Smyrna (2:1), Pergamum (2:8), Thyatira (2:12),Sardis (3:1), Philadelphia (3:7), Laodicea (3:14), the Euphrates (Rev 9:14;16:12) and Armageddon (16:16).[95]Why should the city of Babylon, depicted in Revelation 17-18, not be given thesame literal interpretation? Moreover, when John wants to communicate that heis using a city in a non-literal sense, he makes this explicit as in 11:8 wherehe says "the great city which is spiritually called Sodom and Egypt."[96]Because no similar formula is found in Revelation 17-18 to alert the readerthat John is speaking of the city of Babylon figuratively, there is no reasonthat Babylon should be interpreted non-literally.[97]Morris observes, "that Revelation means 'unveiling' and not 'veiling.' In theabsence of any statement in the context to the contrary, therefore, we mustassume that the term Babylon applies to the real city of Babylon, although italso may extend far beyond that to the whole system centered at Babylon aswell."[98]

Amention of the Euphrates at two places in the Apocalypse (9:14; 16:12; Gen15:18) further confirms that assigning Babylon the literal significance of thecity on the Euphrates is the most natural way of understanding Revelation17-18.[99]The view also seems bolstered by Revelation's use of the Old Testament.[100]Because the Old Testament onlyused Babylon in the literal sense, it is logical to assume that John, who isdrawing so heavily from the Old Testament, would also use Babylon in the sameliteral manner.[101]Understanding Revelation 17-18 as literal Babylon also seems most consistentwith how these chapters describe the city's geography. According to Thomas andSeiss, Babylon on the Euphrates has a location that fits the description of thecity of Revelation 17-18 politically and geographically as well as in the areasof accessibility, commercial facilities, and centrality of world trade.[102]

Anothercomponent of the literal Babylon view is the notion that the propheciesregarding Babylon's destruction as recorded Isaiah 13-14 and Jeremiah 50-51have never been satisfied as demanded by the specific details of these passagesand therefore await a future fulfillment.[103]The prospect of such a future fulfillment gives interpreters more confidence inassigning a literal meaning to Babylon's destruction in Revelation 17-18 sinceboth the Old Testament and New Testament passages seem to be speaking of thesame event. Dyer points to the many differences between Babylon's historicdefeat and how Jeremiah 50-51 describes Babylon's ultimate destruction.[104]

For example, Jeremiah predicts that an enemy fromthe north would destroy Babylon and yet the Persians came from the east. Inaddition, Jeremiah 51:8 predicts that Babylon would be destroyed suddenly andyet the actual destruction of the city was a gradual process taking severalcenturies. Furthermore, Jeremiah predicts that Babylon would be completelydestroyed (Jer 50:3, 13, 26, 39-40; 51:29, 43, 62) and yet Babylon remainedproductive and populated after her initial fall. In fact, the city was sparedand made one of the ruling centers of the Persian Empire with Daniel serving inan administrative position (Dan 5:30; 6:1-3). Jeremiah 51:26 predicts thatBabylon's destruction would result in even her building materials never beingused again and yet the materials from which ancient Babylon may have been builthave been used extensively in the building of many surrounding cities.[105]Also, Jeremiah predicts that believers would flee Babylon upon her destruction(Jer 50:8; 51:6, 45) and yet there is no record of the Jews fleeing Babylonwhen she fell to the Persians. In fact, Scripture specifically states thatDaniel remained in the city after its fall (Dan 5:28, 30-31; 6:1-3). Finally,Jeremiah predicts the reuniting and national repentance of Israel followingBabylon's fall (Jer 50:2, 4-5, 20; 51:50) and yet such a reuniting never tookplace after Babylon fell. In fact, the post-exilic record evidences God'scontinual rebuking of His people.

Others have noticed a similar pattern in Isaiah13-14, which also is a prophecy of Babylon's destruction. Chapter 13 equatesBabylon's destruction to the "Day of the Lord" (13:6-9), cosmic disturbances(13:10-13),[106] the judgmentof the world (13:11-12),[107]the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (13:19), and complete and finaldesolation (13:20-22).[108]Chapter 14 indicates that the world's universal rest and peace (14:5-8) andIsrael's restoration (14:1-4) will transpire immediately after Babylon'sdestruction.[109] Again, acomparison of these chapters with the historic defeat of Babylon in 539 B.C. makes it difficult to argue that they havealready been fulfilled.[110]

Another passage that seems to have some bearingon future Babylon is Zechariah 5:5-11. In these verses, Zechariah sees a womannamed wickedness carried away in an ephah in the last days to the land Shinarwhere a temple will be built for her. An "Ephah" was used to measure flour andbarley. "Temple" conjures up religious imagery. "Shinar" is the same geographiclocale of the Tower of Babel (Gen 10:10; 11:2) as well as historic Babylon (Isa11:11; Dan 1:2). Since the Babylonian Empire had already fallen (539 B.C.) at the time this vision was given (519 B.C.), this passage seems to indicate thatwickedness, commerce, and religion will once again be centered in ancientBabylon.[111] Moreover,the similarities depicted in Hitchcock's chart seem to indicate that the womenspoken of in Zechariah 5:5-11 and Revelation 17-18 are the same entity.[112]

In sum, Old Testament passages (Jer 50-51; Isa 13-14; Zech 5:5-11)predicting the future rise and destruction of Babylon give the interpreterfurther confidence in literally construing Revelation 17-18, which also speaksof Babylon's future rise and fall.

John consistently employingOld Testament imagery of ancient Babylon strengthens the literal Babylon view.For example, the phrase "Babylon the Great" (16:19; 17:5; 18:2, 10, 21) seemsto be drawn from Nebuchadnezzar's description of the Babylonian Empire (Daniel4:30).[113]Furthermore, the imagery of the many waters (Rev 17:1, 15) is reminiscent ofthe waters of Babylon (Ps 137:1; Jer 51:13). Thus, such imagery seemsintentionally selected in order to conjure up the memory of ancient Babylon,with its series of canals that straddled the Euphrates. In addition, the boastof Babylon, "I sit as queen and am no widow, and will not see sorrow" (18:7) isidentical to that of ancient Babylon (Isa 47:7-9).[114]

John also employs imageryfrom the Tower of Babel. The part ofthe woman's title that reads "the mother of harlots" also uniquely identifiesher as Babylon since it conveys the notion that she is the one who ultimatelygave birth to all harlotry.Only the Tower of Babel fits this description.[115]Because the Tower of Babel incident took place before God had establishednational divisions, it stands in its own unique category as the first and onlycollective rebellion by mankind against God that has ever occurred in pasthistory. This initial apostasy in one centralized locale "followed by theglobal distribution, is the primary mechanism by which Babylon became thecentral influence in all cultures and civilizations which followed."[116]Because neither Jerusalem nor Rome spread their harlotry throughout the worldin this manner, they constitute mere daughters of the harlot rather than the mother of harlots.[117]In using the "mother of harlots" imagery,John skillfully connects future worldwide apostasy led from Babylon back to thefirst world apostasy that also began from Babylon.[118]Thus, "the focus of world events is cycling back to where it all began."[119]

Revelation 17-18 also repeatedly draws imageryfrom the description of Babylon and its destruction given in Jeremiah 50-51.[120]Both passages associate Babylon with a golden cup (Jer 51:7a; Rev 17:3-4;18:6), dwelling on many waters (Jer 51:13; Rev 17:1), intoxicating the nations(Jer 51:7b; Rev 17:2), and having the same name (Jer 50:1; Rev 17:5; 18:10).Both passages analogize Babylon's destruction to a stone sinking into theEuphrates (Jer 51:63-64; Rev 18:21) and depict Babylon's destruction as sudden(Jer 51:8; Rev 18:8), caused by fire (Jer 51:30; Rev 17:16; 18:8), final (Jer50:39; Rev 18:21), and deserved (Jer 50:29; Rev 18:6). Both passages describethe response to Babylon's destruction in terms of God's people fleeing (Jer51:6, 45; Rev 18:4) and heaven rejoicing (Jer 51:48; Rev 18:20).

The most strenuous objection to this view is thatit treats literally what should be treated symbolically given the fact thatRevelation is identical to non-canonical apocalyptic literature.[121]According to Gregg:

A failure to take into account this feature hasled some to the most outlandish teachings on this book by some whose rule ofinterpretation is 'literal unless absurd.' Though this is a good rule whendealing with literature written in a literal genre, it is the exact opposite inthe case of apocalyptic literature, where symbolism is the rule and literalismis the exception.[122]

However, Thomas counters the assumption that Revelation is part ofthe apocalyptic category by noting that any similarities it has with theseother works are outweighed by notable differences between the two.[123]

The literal Babylon view is also criticized onthe grounds that Isaiah 13-14 and Jeremiah 50-51 were "essentially fulfilled"in 539 B.C. and therefore do not await a futurefulfillment. Critics maintain that these prophetic texts should not beapproached with a "wooden literalistic hermeneutic" that demands that everyminute prophetic detail come to pass.[125]For example, Heater points out that it is common for Old Testament passages aswell as Ancient Near East treaties to describe the coming destruction of anenemy in hyperbolic, non-literal terms. Heater categorizes such language as"destruction genre."[126]However, this criticism fails to interact with Dyer's argument that afterBabylon's destruction, the northern and southern kingdoms would be reunited andnational repentance would result. Because these events await the future fulfillment of Israel's covenants (Ezek 37; Rom11:25-27), they have never happened in history and are yet to occur.[127]

Itis also possible to question whether the literal Babylon interpretation wouldhave relevance to John's original first century audience. However, such acriticism also questions numerous Old Testament prophecies predicting theultimate triumph of God to be fulfilled in the distant future (Isa 40-66; Ezek34-48; Amos 9:11-15). Finally, the Babylon view has been criticized as readingcurrent events regarding the present Iraqi crisis back into the text ratherthan being the product of sound exegetical principles.[128]However, this accusation seems unfair in light of the fact that numerousinterpreters held the view long before Sadam Hussein rose to power. Suchcommentators include Newell (1935), Jennings (1937), Cooper (1942), and Lang(1948). Other commentators held the view before Iraq became a nation in 1932.Such commentators include Seiss (1909) and Larkin (1919).[129]It is true that Dyer released his book advocating his view on the eve of theGulf War[130] and recentlyon the eve of the present war with Iraq.[131]However, it should be noted that the content of these books is based uponDyer's master's thesis that was completed in 1979[132]long before Hussein's rise to power and escalating tensions between America andIraq.

Thefour most prominent approaches for identifying Babylon in Revelation 17-18 are Jerusalem, Rome, anend time religious system, and futuristic, literal, rebuilt Babylon. Althoughthis latter position is not without its weaknesses and is presently a minorityposition in the scholarly world, it seems to have fewer problems than the otherviews.

[1] Some of the mainproponents of this position include Ford, Russell, Terry, Chilton, Gentry, andBeagley. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ford</Author><Year>1975</Year><RecNum>55</RecNum><Pages>54-56,93,259-307</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>J.Massyngberde Ford</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1975</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>WilliamFoxwell Albright and David NoelFreedman</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>AnchorBible</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Garden City,NY</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Doubleday</PUBLISHER><VOLUME>38</VOLUME></MDL></Cite></EndNote>J. Massyngberde Ford, Revelation, ed. William Foxwell Albright and David Noel Freedman,Anchor Bible, vol. 38 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975), 54-56, 93, 259-307: ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Russell</Author><Year>1887</Year><RecNum>56</RecNum><Pages>482-98</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>J.StuartRussell</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1887</YEAR><TITLE>TheParousia: A Critical Inquiry into the New Testament Doctrine of OurLord&apos;s Second Coming</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>London</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Unwin</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>GrandRapids: Baker,1999</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>J. Stuart Russell, The Parousia: A Critical Inquiryinto the New Testament Doctrine of Our Lord's Second Coming (London: Unwin, 1887; reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker,1999), 482-98: ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Terry</Author><Year>1898</Year><RecNum>57</RecNum><Pages>426-39</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MiltonS. Terry</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1898</YEAR><TITLE>BiblicalApocalyptics: A Study of the Most Notable Revelations of God and ofChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>NY</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eaton&amp; Mains</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Milton S. Terry, Biblical Apocalyptics: A Study ofthe Most Notable Revelations of God and of Christ (NY: Eaton & Mains, 1898), 426-39: ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Chilton</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>58</RecNum><Pages>421-66</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>DavidChilton</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1987</YEAR><TITLE>TheDays of Vengeance: An Exposition of the Book ofRevelation</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Tyler,TX</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>DominionPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>David Chilton, The Days of Vengeance: An Expositionof the Book of Revelation (Tyler, TX:Dominion Press, 1987), 421-66; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gentry</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>59</RecNum><Pages>38</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>KennethL.Gentry</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>APreterist View ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>C.Marvin Pate</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>FourViews on the Book of Revelation</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Zondervan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Kenneth L. Gentry, "A Preterist View ofRevelation," in Four Views on the Book of Revelation, ed. C. Marvin Pate (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), ADDINEN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gentry</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>59</RecNum><Pages>73-79</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>KennethL.Gentry</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>APreterist View ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>C.MarvinPate</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>FourViews on the Book of Revelation</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Zondervan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote> 73-79; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beagley</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>65</RecNum><Pages>93-110</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>AlanJames Beagley</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1987</YEAR><TITLE>The&apos;Stitz Im Leben&apos; of the Apocalypse with Particular Referenceto the Role of the Church&apos;sEnemies</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>NewYork</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>de Gruyter</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Alan James Beagley, The 'Stitz Im Leben' of theApocalypse with Particular Reference to the Role of the Church's Enemies (New York: de Gruyter, 1987), 93-110.

[2] Full preterism sees Revelation 4-22 as finding a totalA.D.70 fulfillment. Russell is a representative of the full preterist camp. On theother hand, partial preterism understands most of the contents of Revelation4-22 as finding an A.D. 70 realization while allowing for some of theseprophecies, such as Revelation 20, to receive a futuristic fulfillment. Gentryis an advocate of partial preterism.

[3] However, not all advocates of the Jerusalem view areof this mindset. Some advocating this position hold to a late date of the bookand view the imagery of the harlot in Revelation 17-18 to be merely reminiscentof the A.D. 70 events. Thus they understand these chapters as an ex eventu prophecy. Provan is a proponent of this position. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Provan</Author><Year>December1996</Year><RecNum>60</RecNum><Pages>81-100</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>IainProvan</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>December1996</YEAR><TITLE>Foul Spirits, Fornication and Finance: Revelation18 From an Old Testament Perspective</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>Journalfor the Study of the New Testament</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>64</VOLUME><PAGES>81-100</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Iain Provan, "Foul Spirits, Fornication andFinance: Revelation 18 from an Old Testament Perspective," Journal forthe Study of the New Testament 64(December 1996): 81-100.

[4] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Chilton</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>58</RecNum><Pages>421</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>DavidChilton</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1987</YEAR><TITLE>TheDays of Vengeance: An Exposition of the Book ofRevelation</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Tyler,TX</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>DominionPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Chilton, 421.

[5] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gentry</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>59</RecNum><Pages>52-53</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>KennethL.Gentry</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>APreterist View of Revelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>C.Marvin Pate</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>FourViews on the Book ofRevelation</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Zondervan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Gentry, 52-53. Russell observesnumerous parallels between Revelation and the Olivet Discourse such as theParousia, wars, famines, pestilence, earthquakes, false prophets, deceivers,signs and wonders, the darkening of the sun and moon, stars falling fromheaven, angels, trumpets, eagles, carcasses, great tribulation, woe, convulsionsof nature, the treading down of Jerusalem, the gathering of the elect, thereward of the faithful, and the judgment of the wicked. These similaritiesallow Russell to conclude that the same events that are predicted in the OlivetDiscourse are also predicted in Revelation but only in "a more figurative andsymbolical dress." Russell, 375-76.

[6] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Russell</Author><Year>1887</Year><RecNum>56</RecNum><Pages>485</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>J.StuartRussell</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1887</YEAR><TITLE>TheParousia: A Critical Inquiry into the New Testament Doctrine of OurLord&apos;s Second Coming</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>London</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Unwin</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>GrandRapids: Baker,1999</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid., 485.

[7] Jerusalem advocates believe that because the threereferences to the "Great City" prior to Revelation 17-18 refer to Jerusalem,the references to the "Great City" in Revelation 17-18 refers to Jerusalem aswell. In addition to 11:8, Jerusalem advocates also point to Revelation 14:20(which supposedly refers to Jerusalem because the grapes/vine imagery iscommonly associated with Israel throughout the Old Testament) and Revelation16:19 (which supposedly refers to Jerusalem because the imagery of the city'sthree fold division is found in Ezekiel 5:1-5). See Russell, 486-88.

[8] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gentry</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>59</RecNum><Pages>76</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>KennethL.Gentry</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>APreterist View of Revelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>C.Marvin Pate</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>FourViews on the Book ofRevelation</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Zondervan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Gentry, 76. Beale notes thatthe combination of the words in the Greek that describe the harlot's garb isidentical to the LXX description of the Jewish high priest's garments. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beale</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>64</RecNum><Pages>886</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.K.Beale</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1999</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>I.Howard Marshall and Donald A.Hagner</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>NewCentury Bible Commentary Series</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>G. K. Beale, The Book of Revelation, New International Greek Testament Commentary, ed. I.Howard Marshall and Donald A. Hagner (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 886.

[9] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>307</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary (Chicago: Moody Press,1992), 307.

[10] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>206</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid., 206.

[11] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beale</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>64</RecNum><Pages>25</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.K.Beale</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1999</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>I.Howard Marshall and Donald A. Hagner</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>NewCentury Bible CommentarySeries</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Beale, 25.

[12] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beale</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>64</RecNum><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.K.Beale</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1999</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>I.Howard Marshall and Donald A.Hagner</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>NewCentury Bible CommentarySeries</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid.

[13] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Pate</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>54</RecNum><Pages>160</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>C.MarvinPate</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>AProgressive Dispensationalist View of Revelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>C.Marvin Pate</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>FourViews on the Book ofRevelation</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Zondervan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>C. Marvin Pate, "A Progressive DispensationalistView of Revelation," in Four Views on the Book of Revelation, ed. C. Marvin Pate (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Pate</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>54</RecNum><Pages>169-70</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>C.MarvinPate</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>AProgressive Dispensationalist View ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>C.Marvin Pate</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>FourViews on the Book ofRevelation</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Zondervan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>169-70.

[14] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beale</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>64</RecNum><Pages>885</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.K.Beale</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1999</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook of Revelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>I.Howard Marshall and Donald A.Hagner</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>NewCentury Bible CommentarySeries</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Beale, 885.

[15] First century Jews recognized idolatry had caused theBabylonian captivity. This recognition had the effect of curing the nation ofthat particular sin. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beale</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>64</RecNum><Pages>887</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.K. Beale</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1999</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>I.Howard Marshall and Donald A.Hagner</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>NewCentury Bible Commentary Series</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid., 887.

[16] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gentry</Author><Year>June1987</Year><RecNum>68</RecNum><Pages>11</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>KennethL. Gentry</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>June1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Days of Vengeance: A ReviewArticle</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>The Council of Chalcedon</SECONDARY_TITLE></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Kenneth L. Gentry, "The Days of Vengeance: AReview Article," The Council of Chalcedon (June 1987): 11. According to preterist R.C. Sproul, "If the book waswritten after A.D. 70, then its contents do not manifestly refer to theevents surrounding the fall of Jerusalem-unless the book is a wholesale fraud,having been composed after the predicted events had already occurred." ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Sproul</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>69</RecNum><Pages>140</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>R.C.Sproul</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>TheLast Days According to Jesus</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>BakerBooks</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>R.C. Sproul, The Last Days According to Jesus (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 140.

[17] The content of this dissertation was later publishedin his book Before Jerusalem Fell ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gentry</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>70</RecNum><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>KennethL.Gentry</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1989</YEAR><TITLE>BeforeJerusalem Fell</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Tyler,TX</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Institute for Christian Economics</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Kenneth L. Gentry, Before Jerusalem Fell (Tyler, TX: Institute for Christian Economics, 1989).

[18] Thus, Gentry is candid in his admission that hisassignment of an early date for the book has caused him to swim against thetide of contemporary opinion. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gentry</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>72</RecNum><Pages>109</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>KennethL. Gentry</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2002</YEAR><TITLE>TheBeast of Revelation</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Powder Springs,GA</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>AmericanVision</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Kenneth L. Gentry, The Beast of Revelation (Powder Springs, GA: American Vision, 2002), 109.

[19] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Smith</Author><Year>April-June1888</Year><RecNum>73</RecNum><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>J.Ritchie Smith</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>April-June1888</YEAR><TITLE>The Date of the Apocalypse</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>45</VOLUME><PAGES>297-328</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>J. Ritchie Smith, "The Date of theApocalypse," Bibliotheca Sacra45 (April-June 1888). For a more recent work specifically critiquing the early date argumentsraised by Gentry, see ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hitchcock</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>74</RecNum><Pages>123-50</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MarkHitchcock</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE><styles><stylesize='10' start='28'></style><style start='32'></style></styles>TheStake in the Heart: The A.D. 95 Date ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>TimLaHaye and ThomasIce</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>TheEnd Times Controversy</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Eugene,OR</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>HarvestHouse</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Mark Hitchcock, "The Stake in the Heart: The A.D. 95 Date ofRevelation," in The End Times Controversy, ed. Tim LaHaye and Thomas Ice (Eugene, OR: HarvestHouse, 2003), 123-50.

[20] D. A Carson echoes such a sentiment when issuing thefollowing critique of Chilton's commentary: "Chilton ties his interpretationof the entire book to a dogmatic insistence that it was written before A.D. 70, and thatits predictions are focused on the destruction of Jerusalem. Although there aresome excellent theological links crafted in this book, the central setting andargument are so weak and open to criticism that I cannot recommend the workvery warmly." ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Carson</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>76</RecNum><Pages>129</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>D.A.Carson</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2001</YEAR><TITLE>NewTestament Commentary Survey</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Grand Rapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER><EDITION>5th</EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>D.A. Carson, New Testament Commentary Survey, 5th ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), 129.

[21] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>303</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 303.

[22] For a refutation of the preterist interpretation ofthe Olivet Discourse, see ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>October-December1987</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><Pages>434-36</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>October-December 1987</YEAR><TITLE>TheIdentity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part 2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>433-449</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Stanley D. Toussaint, "A Critique of the PreteristView of the Olivet Discourse," Bibliotheca Sacra 161 (October-December 2004): 469-90.

[23] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>29-30</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of Jesus Christ</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>John F. Walvoord, The Revelation of Jesus Christ (Chicago: Moody Press, 1966), 3 ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>56</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of JesusChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>5.

[24] Ibid., ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>333</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF. Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of JesusChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>333.

[25] It is obvious thatthe use of tavcos in the following passagescannot be chronological and therefore must be qualitative because contextuallythese prophetic passages would not find their fulfillment for hundreds and eventhousands of years after they were written. For example, Isaiah 13:22 says,"Her (Israel) fateful time will soon come" This verse was written around 700 B.C. and predicted Israel'sdestruction under Babylon that did not occur until 539 B.C. Isaiah 51:5 says, Myrighteousness is near, My salvation has gone forth, And My arms will judge the peoples; Thecoastlands will wait upon Me, And on My arm they will trust." Many scholarsbelieve that this passage will not be fulfilled until the millennium. SimilarSeptuagint uses of the timing phrases utilized in Revelation can be found inIsaiah 5:26; 13:6; 58:8; Joel 1:15; 2:1; 3:14. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Ice</Author><Year>December2000</Year><RecNum>79</RecNum><Pages>306</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>ThomasIce</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>December2000</YEAR><TITLE>Has Bible Prophecy Already Been Fulfilled? (Part2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>Conservative TheologicalJournal</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>4</VOLUME><PAGES>291-327</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas Ice, "Has Bible Prophecy Already BeenFulfilled? (Part 2)," Conservative Theological Journal 4 (December 2000): 306.

[26] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Barr</Author><Year>1961</Year><RecNum>80</RecNum><Pages>217-18</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JamesBarr</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1961</YEAR><TITLE>TheSemantics of BiblicalLanguage</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>London</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>OxfordUniversity Press</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>James Barr, The Semantics of Biblical Language (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), 217-18.

[27] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>283</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 283. The Jerusalem view is further weakened to the extentthat it appears to come on the scene rather late in church history. Frostexplains, "The postmillennialism and partial preterism of Gentry and Seraiah isnot of the fathers. It hardly bears resemblance. Gentry borrowing from latenineteenth century theologian Milton Terry interprets the Babylonian whore inRevelation 17:1-ff to be Jerusalem in the age of Paul. This is brand new. Nofather taught this that we are aware of. For nearly two thousand years thisview never breathed, if and only if we are to maintain that all eschatology canbe found in these writings." ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Frost</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>75</RecNum><Pages>154</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>SamuelM.Frost</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2002</YEAR><TITLE>MisplacedHope: The Origins of First and Second CenturyEschatology</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>ColoradoSprings</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>BimillennialPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Samuel M. Frost, Misplaced Hope: The Origins ofFirst and Second Century Eschatology(Colorado Springs: Bimillennial Press, 2002), 154.

[28] Historicists are those who see Revelation's prophecies regarding Babylon as finding theirfulfillment in the life and destruction of the Roman Empire in A.D. 476.

[29] Proponents of this position include ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Aune</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>82</RecNum><Pages>906-1012</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>DavidE.Aune</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1997</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation17-22</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>Bruce M.Metzger</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>WordBiblicalCommentary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ThomasNelson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>David E. Aune, Revelation 17-22, ed. Bruce M. Metzger, Word Biblical Commentary(Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1997), 906-1012. Other commentatorsthat incorporate all or at least some of Aune's approach include Charles,Swete, Caird, Mounce, and Beasley-Murray. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Charles</Author><Year>1920</Year><RecNum>83</RecNum><Pages>75</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>R.H.Charles</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1920</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of St. John</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>S.R.Driver and A. Plummer and C.A.Briggs</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>InternationalCritical Commentary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Edinburgh</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>T&amp; TClark</PUBLISHER><VOLUME>2</VOLUME></MDL></Cite></EndNote>R. H. Charles, The Revelation of St. John, ed. S.R. Driver and A. Plummer and C.A. Briggs,International Critical Commentary, vol. 2 (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1920),75; ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Swete</Author><Year>1911</Year><RecNum>84</RecNum><Pages>226</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryBarclay Swete</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1911</YEAR><TITLE>TheApocalypse of St. John</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>3d</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><PLACE_PUBLISHED>London</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Macmillan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Henry Barclay Swete, The Apocalypse of St. John, ed. 3d (London: Macmillan, 1911), 226; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Caird</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>85</RecNum><Pages>213</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.B.Caird</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of Saint John</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>HenryChadwick</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>Black&apos;sNew TestamentCommentaries</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>London</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Black</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>G.B. Caird, The Revelation of Saint John, ed. Henry Chadwick, Black's New TestamentCommentaries (London: Black, 1966), 213; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Mounce</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>86</RecNum><Pages>308</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertH.Mounce</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>GordonD. Fee</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>Commentaryon the New Testament</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER><EDITION>rev.</EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation, ed. Gordon D. Fee, rev. ed., Commentary on the NewTestament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 308; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beasley-Murray</Author><Year>1974</Year><RecNum>87</RecNum><Pages>225</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.R.Beasley-Murray</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1974</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook of Revelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>New Century BibleCommentary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>London</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Marshall,Morgan, and Scott</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>G.R. Beasley-Murray, The Book of Revelation, New Century Bible Commentary (London: Marshall,Morgan, and Scott, 1974), 225.

[30] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Aune</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>147</RecNum><Pages>829</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>DavidE. Aune</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1997</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation6-19</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>Bruce M.Metzger</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>WordBiblical Commentary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ThomasNelson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>David E. Aune, Revelation 6-16, ed. Bruce M. Metzger, Word Biblical Commentary(Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1997), 829.

[31] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Pate</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>88</RecNum><Pages>103</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>C.MarvinPate</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>Iraq-Babylonof the End Times</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>C. Marvin Pate and J. Daniel Hays, Iraq-Babylon ofthe End Times (Grand Rapids: Baker,2003), 103.

[32] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Robertson</Author><Year>1933</Year><RecNum>92</RecNum><Pages>6:430</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>ArchibaldThomasRobertson</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1933</YEAR><TITLE>WordPictures in the NewTestament</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>BroadmanPress</PUBLISHER><NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES>6</NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Archibald Thomas Robertson, Word Pictures in the NewTestament, 6 vols. (Nashville:Broadman Press, 1933), 6:430.

[33] Thiessen lists the following ancient sources placingPeter in Rome toward the end of his life: Ignatius, Papias, First Clement,Hegesippus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Dionysius of Carthage, Tertullianand Jerome. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thiessen</Author><Year>1955</Year><RecNum>89</RecNum><Pages>285</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryClarenceThiessen</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1955</YEAR><TITLE>Introductionto the New Testament</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Henry Clarence Thiessen, Introduction to the NewTestament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,1955), 285. Rome advocates cite other reasons in support of this view. Most ofthese reasons were taken from ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gromacki</Author><Year>1974</Year><RecNum>90</RecNum><Pages>351</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertG.Gromacki</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1974</YEAR><TITLE>NewTestament Survey</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Robert G. Gromacki, New Testament Survey (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1974), 351. First,according to 1 Peter 5:13, one of Peter's companions was Mark. Mark was withPaul during his first Roman imprisonment (Col 4:10; Phlm 22-23) and may haveaccompanied Timothy to Rome for the second incarceration (2 Tim 4:11). Second,nowhere in Scripture or in extra biblical Christian material does one find areference to Peter or Mark visiting Babylon. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Pate</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>88</RecNum><Pages>108</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>C.Marvin Pate</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>Iraq-Babylonof the End Times</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Pate, Iraq-Babylon of the End Times, 108. Third, a consultation with a map demonstrates that theletter must have been sent from the West or Rome because of the order in whichthe names or provinces appear. Fourth, Scripture depicts Peter's ministrymoving northward from Canaan to Syrian Antioch (Gal 2:11) and then Westward toCorinth (1 Cor 1:12) in the direction of Rome. Fifth, there was no reason forPeter to visit Babylon. Because of the Babylonian Captivity, a large number ofJews continued to reside in the East. However, in the last years of Caligula'slife (Caligula died in A.D. 41), there was a persecution of the Jews in Babylon.Consequently, many of these Jews migrated to Selucia. Five years later a plaguediminished their number further. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thiessen</Author><Year>1955</Year><RecNum>89</RecNum><Pages>285</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryClarence Thiessen</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1955</YEAR><TITLE>Introductionto the New Testament</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thiessen, 285. Thus, historians of the day referred to Babylon asuninhabited, declining, and deserted. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Russell</Author><Year>1887</Year><RecNum>56</RecNum><Pages>347</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>J.StuartRussell</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1887</YEAR><TITLE>TheParousia: A Critical Inquiry into the New Testament Doctrine of OurLord&apos;s SecondComing</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>London</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Unwin</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>GrandRapids: Baker, 1999</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Russell, 347. Sixth, because Peter uses figurative languageelsewhere (1 Peter 1:2, 13; 2:4), it is likely that he is also employingfigurative language in 1 Peter 5:13. Perhaps Peter refers to Babylonfiguratively in this verse in order to build upon the exile motif that he hasbeen using throughout the epistle. Seventh, because other cities are used in afigurative sense elsewhere in Scripture (Gal 4:25; Rev 11:8), Peter is probablyreferring to the city of Babylon figuratively here as well. Thus, Peter wasobviously speaking figuratively of Rome through his use of the term Babylon in1 Peter 5:13.

[34] Pate and Hays buttress their position by noting themany parallels between Revelation 17-18 and the Sibylline Oracles. In both writings, Rome is called Babylon, Rome is portrayedas an immoral woman, and this immoral woman sits by the banks of the TiberRiver. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Pate</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>88</RecNum><Pages>109</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>C.MarvinPate</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>Iraq-Babylonof the End Times</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Pate, Iraq-Babylon of the End Times, 109.

[35] The names of the seven hills are Capitol, Aventine,Caelin, Esquiline, Quirnal, Viminal, and Palestine.

[36] Cicero Letters to Atticus 6.5; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4.13.2-3; Horace CarmenSaeculare 7; Juvenal Satires 9.130; Ovid Trista 1.5.69; Pliny Natural History 3.66-67; Varro On the Latin Language 5.7.41; Virgil Georgics 2.535; Virgil Aenid 6.782-83.

[37] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Mounce</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>86</RecNum><Pages>313-14</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertH.Mounce</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>GordonD. Fee</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>Commentaryon the New Testament</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER><EDITION>rev.</EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Mounce, 313-14. This suggestion is especially true given the fact thatthe seven hills were the nucleus of the city on the left bank of the TiberRiver and given the fact that an unusual festival called the septimontium received its name because of this topographicalfeature. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>295</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 295; Suetonious Domitian 4.

[38] One side of the coin contains the portrait of theemperor. The reverse side of the coin depicts Roma, a Roman pagan goddess, sitting on seven hills seatedby the waters of the Tiber River. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Aune</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>82</RecNum><Pages>919-28</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>DavidE.Aune</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1997</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation17-22</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>Bruce M.Metzger</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>WordBiblicalCommentary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ThomasNelson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Aune, Revelation 17-22, 919-28. There are obvious similarities between the Dea Roma Coin and the imagery of Revelation 17. In both cases,the goddess and the harlot are seated on seven hills and are seated either onor by the waters (Rev 17:1). In addition, the name of the goddess was thoughtby many Romans to be Amor, which isRoma spelled backwards. Amor was the goddess of love and sexuality. Thus, both thewoman on the coin and the woman in Revelation 17 represent harlotry (Rev 17:5).Furthermore, the coin equates Romawith the power of the Roman Empire, which was active in persecuting Christiansof John's day. The placement of Vespasian on one side of the coin and Roma on the other makes this connection. Interestingly,Augustus initiated the custom of dedicating temples to both Caesar and Roma. The goddess is also pictured as holding a sword,which may depict Rome's imperial power. This imagery parallels with the womanin Revelation 17 who is said to be drunk with the blood of the saints (Rev 17:6).ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Pate</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>88</RecNum><Pages>104-107</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>C.MarvinPate</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>Iraq-Babylonof the End Times</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Pate, Iraq-Babylon of the End Times, 104-107; Harold Mattingly, ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Year>1930</Year><RecNum>556</RecNum><Pages>2:</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><YEAR>1930</YEAR><TITLE>Coinsof the Roman Empire in the BritishMuseum</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GreatBritain</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Oxford UniversityPress</PUBLISHER><NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES>6</NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, 6 vols. (Great Britain: Oxford University Press,1930), 2: pl. 34. 5.

[39] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Aune</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>82</RecNum><Pages>929</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>DavidE.Aune</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1997</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation17-22</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>Bruce M.Metzger</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>WordBiblical Commentary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ThomasNelson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Aune, Revelation 17-22, 929.

[40] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Aune</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>82</RecNum><Pages>960,1011</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>DavidE.Aune</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1997</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation17-22</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>Bruce M.Metzger</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>WordBiblicalCommentary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ThomasNelson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Aune, Revelation 17-22, 960, 1011.

[41] Gregg remarks, "That the beast from the sea is closelyidentified with Rome will scarcely be disputed by members of most interpretiveschools." ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gregg</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>63</RecNum><Pages>11</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>9</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>SteveGregg</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1997</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation:Four Views, A ParallelCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ThomasNelson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Steve Gregg, ed., Revelation: Four Views, a ParallelCommentary (Nashville: Thomas Nelson,1997), 276.

[42] Beasley-Murray embraces the notion that both entitiesrepresent Rome when he says, "The two figures of monster and woman are reallyalternative representations of a single entity." ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Beasley-Murray</Author><Year>1974</Year><RecNum>87</RecNum><Pages>249</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.R.Beasley-Murray</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1974</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook of Revelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>New Century BibleCommentary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>London</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Marshall,Morgan, and Scott</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Beasley-Murray, 249. [42]

[43] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beagley</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>65</RecNum><Pages>92-93</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>AlanJamesBeagley</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1987</YEAR><TITLE>The&apos;Stitz Im Leben&apos; of the Apocalypse with Particular Referenceto the Role of the Church&apos;sEnemies</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>NewYork</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>deGruyter</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Beagley, 92-93.

[44] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Morris</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>339</RecNum><Pages>14</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryMorris</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation Record</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Wheaton,Ill</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Tyndale</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Henry Morris, The Revelation Record (Wheaton, Ill: Tyndale, 1985), 323.

[45] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beagley</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>65</RecNum><Pages>92-93</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>AlanJames Beagley</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1987</YEAR><TITLE>The&apos;Stitz Im Leben&apos; of the Apocalypse with Particular Referenceto the Role of the Church&apos;sEnemies</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>NewYork</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>deGruyter</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Beagley, 108; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>307</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 307.

[46] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>October-December1987</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><Pages>434-36</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>October-December 1987</YEAR><TITLE>TheIdentity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part 2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>433-449</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Charles H. Dyer, "The Identity of Babylon inRevelation 17-18 (Part 2)," Bibliotheca Sacra 144 (October-December 1987): 434-36.

[47] This translation is found in the KJV and the NIV.

[48] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>246</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF. Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of JesusChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Walvoord, 246.

[49] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>289</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 289. Of all the references to Babylon in Revelation (14:8,16:19, 17:5, 18:2, 10, 21), "only in 17:5 is she called 'Mystery, Babylon theGreat.'" ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Morris</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>339</RecNum><Pages>14</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryMorris</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation Record</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Wheaton, Ill</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Tyndale</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Morris, The Revelation Record, 324.

[50] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>546</RecNum><Pages>956,n.11</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><YEAR>2001</YEAR><TITLE>TheNET Bible</TITLE><PUBLISHER>Biblical StudiesPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>The NET Bible,(Biblical Studies Press, 2001), 2336, n. 2.

[51] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Vine</Author><Year>1985</Year><RecNum>98</RecNum><Pages>424</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>W.E.Vine</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1985</YEAR><TITLE>Vine&apos;sComplete Expository Dictionary of the Old and New Testament Words</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ThomasNelson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>W. E. Vine, Vine's Complete Expository Dictionary ofthe Old and New Testament Words(Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1985), 424. Hoehner's word study of musthriondemonstrates this understanding as well. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Hoehner</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>15</RecNum><Pages>428-34</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HaroldW.Hoehner</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2002</YEAR><TITLE>Ephesians:An Exegetical Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Harold W. Hoehner, Ephesians: An ExegeticalCommentary (Grand Rapids: Baker,2002), 428-34.

[52] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>288-89</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 288-89.

[53] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Alford</Author><Year>1866</Year><RecNum>99</RecNum><Pages>4:128</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryAlford</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1866</YEAR><TITLE>TheGreekTestament</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Cambridge</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Deighton,Bell and Co.</PUBLISHER><NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES>4</NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES><EDITION>3d</EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Henry Alford, The Greek Testament, 3d ed., 4 vols. (Cambridge: Deighton, Bell and Co.,1866), 4:129.

[54] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gromacki</Author><Year>1974</Year><RecNum>90</RecNum><Pages>351</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertG.Gromacki</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1974</YEAR><TITLE>NewTestament Survey</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Grand Rapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Gromacki, 351. See also ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Moule</Author><Year>1956-7</Year><RecNum>100</RecNum><Pages>9</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesMoule</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1956-7</YEAR><TITLE>TheNature and Purpose of 1 Peter</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>New TestamentStudies</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>3</VOLUME></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Charles Moule, "The Nature and Purpose of 1Peter," New Testament Studies3 (1956-7): 9.

[55] A literal interpretation of Babylon becomes even morecompelling to the extent that it is recognized that 1 Peter was written to apredominantly Jewish audience. His use of the word "diaspora" in 1:1 alwaysrefers to Jews in all of its New Testament (John 7:35; James 1:1), LXX (Deut28:25; 30:4; Isa 49:6; Jer 41:17; Ps 174:2; 2 Macc 1:27; Judt 5:19), andPseudepigraphical (Pss. Sol. 8:28; T. Asher 7:2) uses. If Babylon refers toBabylon in all of its Old Testament uses, why would 1 Peter 5:13 be theexception considering Peter's Jewish audience? Although Peter does usefigurative language in other sections of his letter, this fact does notautomatically lead to the conclusion that Peter is employing figurativelanguage in 5:13. Each use of figurative language must be proven from itsimmediate context rather than how the author employs figurative meaning in aremote context. In addition, it is difficult to argue that 1 Peter 5:13 isdescribing a figurative city just as cities are used in a non-literal fashionin Galatians 4:24-25 and Revelation 11:8. In Galatians 4:24-25, the text itselfuses the word "allegorically" to explain that the city of Jerusalem is beingfiguratively used of Hagar, Mount Sinai, and the Old Covenant. Similarly,Revelation 11:8 uses the word "spiritually" to demonstrate that Jerusalem isbeing used figuratively of Sodom and Egypt. However, no similar designationsare specified regarding the city of Babylon in 1 Peter 5:13. Although themajority of scholars believe that Peter was referring to Rome in 1 Peter 5:13rather than literal Babylon, it is interesting to note that many prominentinterpreters throughout church history have held to the literal Babyloninterpretation. These prominent interpreters include Erasmus, Calvin, Hort,Gregory, Alford, Mayor, Moorehead, and Thiessen. The persecution of the Jews inBabylon and subsequent plague does not preclude their increase in number andreturn to Babylon during the twenty years that intervened in between theseevents and the writing of Peter's epistle. See ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Thiessen</Author><Year>1955</Year><RecNum>89</RecNum><Pages>285</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryClarence Thiessen</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1955</YEAR><TITLE>Introductionto the New Testament</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thiessen, 285. Other scholars holding to a similar interpretationinclude Moule, Fruchtenbaum, Gromacki, English, and Thomas. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Moule</Author><Year>1956-7</Year><RecNum>100</RecNum><Pages>157</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesMoule</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1956-7</YEAR><TITLE>TheNature and Purpose of 1 Peter</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>New TestamentStudies</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>3</VOLUME></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Moule, "The Nature and Purpose of 1 Peter," 157; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Fruchtenbaum</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>34</RecNum><Pages>1003</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>ArnoldG.Fruchtenbaum</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1994</YEAR><TITLE>Israelology:The Missing Link in SystematicTheology</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Tustin</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ArielMinistries</PUBLISHER><EDITION>rev.</EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Arnold G. Fruchtenbaum, Israelology: The MissingLink in Systematic Theology, rev. ed.(Tustin: Ariel Ministries, 1994), 1003; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gromacki</Author><Year>1974</Year><RecNum>90</RecNum><Pages>351</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertG.Gromacki</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1974</YEAR><TITLE>NewTestament Survey</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Gromacki, New Testament Survey, 351; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>English</Author><Year>1967</Year><RecNum>561</RecNum><Pages>317</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>E.Schuyler English</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1967</YEAR><TITLE>WasSt. Peter Ever in Rome?</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>124</VOLUME><NUMBER>496</NUMBER><PAGES>314-20</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>E. Schuyler English, "Was St. Peter Ever in Rome?," BibliothecaSacra 124 (October-December 1967): 317; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>67</RecNum><Pages>37,n. 121</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation1 to 7: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 1 to 7: An ExegeticalCommentary (Chicago: Moody Press,1992), 37, n. 121; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>206</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>idem, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 206.

[56] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thiessen</Author><Year>1955</Year><RecNum>89</RecNum><Pages>285</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryClarenceThiessen</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1955</YEAR><TITLE>Introductionto the New Testament</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thiessen, 285.

[57] The Magi may have had an awareness of the messianicsignificance of the star as well as the timing of messiah's birth because oftheir familiarity with various Old Testament prophecies (Num 24:17; Dan 9:25).Both prophecies would have been familiar to those in Babylon. Balaam was aresident of Babylon (Num 22:5; Deut 23:4). Daniel gave his prophecies duringthe Babylonian captivity. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Fruchtenbaum</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>178</RecNum><Pages>144-45</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><REFNUM>178</REFNUM><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>ArnoldFruchtenbaum</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>MessianicChristology</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Tustin, CA</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ArielMinistries</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Arnold Fruchtenbaum, Messianic Christology (Tustin, CA: Ariel Ministries, 1998), 144-45.

[58] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gromacki</Author><Year>1974</Year><RecNum>90</RecNum><Pages>352</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertG.Gromacki</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1974</YEAR><TITLE>NewTestament Survey</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Gromacki, 352.

[59] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Fruchtenbaum</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>34</RecNum><Pages>1003</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>ArnoldG. Fruchtenbaum</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1994</YEAR><TITLE>Israelology:The Missing Link in SystematicTheology</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Tustin</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ArielMinistries</PUBLISHER><EDITION>rev.</EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Fruchtenbaum, Israelology: The Missing Link inSystematic Theology, 1003.

[60] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Klijn</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>101</RecNum><Pages>1:616-17</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>A.Klijn</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>2(Syriac Apocalypse of)Baruch</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>James H.Charlesworth</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>TheOld testament Psuedepigrapha</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GardenCity, NY</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Doubleday</PUBLISHER><NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES>2</NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>A. Klijn, "2 (Syriac Apocalypse of) Baruch,"in The Old Testament Psuedepigrapha,ed. James H. Charlesworth (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983), 1:616-17.

[61] ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Collins</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>102</RecNum><Pages>1:390</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>J.J. Collins</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>TheSibylline Oracles, Book 5</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>JamesH.Charlesworth</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>TheOld TestamentPsuedepigrapha</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Garden City,NY</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Doubleday</PUBLISHER><NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES>2</NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>J. J. Collins, "The Sibylline Oracles, Book5," in The Old Testament Psuedepigrapha, ed. James H. Charlesworth (Garden City, NY:Doubleday, 1983), 1:390.

[62] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Kreitzer</Author><Year>1988</Year><RecNum>103</RecNum><Pages>97</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>LarryKreitzer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1988</YEAR><TITLE>Hadrianand the Nero Redivivus Myth</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>Zeitschrift FurDie NuetestamentlicheWissenschaft</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>79</VOLUME><PAGES>92-115</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Larry Kreitzer, "Hadrian and the Nero RedivivusMyth," Zeitschrift Fur Die Nuetestamentliche Wissenschaft 79 (1988): 97.

[63] ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>206</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 206. Sometimes 4 Ezra 3:1-2, 28-31 is cited as anotherexample of a source that uses Babylon as a code word for Rome. Although 4 Ezra may have been composed about A.D. 100, itshould be observed that Metzger remains at least open to a date for 4 Ezra as late as A.D. 120. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Metzger</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>550</RecNum><Pages>1:520</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>B.M.Metzger</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>TheFourth Book of Ezra</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>JamesH. Charlesworth</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>TheOld TestamentPseudepigrapha</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Garden City:NY</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Doubleday</PUBLISHER><NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES>2</NUMBER_OF_VOLUMES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>B. M. Metzger, "The Fourth Book of Ezra," in The OldTestament Pseudepigrapha, ed. James H.Charlesworth, vol. 1. (Garden City: NY: Doubleday, 1983), 1:520

[64] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>289</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid., 289; Tertullian Adversus Marcionem iii. 13.10. Translation consulted was that of ErnestEvans in ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Tertullian</Author><Year>1972</Year><RecNum>555</RecNum><Pages>1:211</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>Tertullian</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1972</YEAR><TITLE>AdversusMarcionem</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>HenryChadwick</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Glasgow</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>OxfordUniversity Press</PUBLISHER><VOLUME>2</VOLUME><SUBSIDIARY_AUTHORS><SUBSIDIARY_AUTHOR>ErnestEvans</SUBSIDIARY_AUTHOR></SUBSIDIARY_AUTHORS></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Tertullian, Adversus Marcionem, trans. Ernest Evans, vol. 2, ed. Henry Chadwick(Glasgow: Oxford University Press, 1972), 1:211..

[65] Morris asks, if "Paul was not afraid to speak directlyabout Rome in his writings, so why should John be?" ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Morris</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>339</RecNum><Pages>14</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryMorris</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation Record</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Wheaton,Ill</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Tyndale</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Morris, The Revelation Record, 323.

[66] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>October-December1987</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><Pages>438</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>October-December1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>433-449</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Dyer., 438.

[67] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>22-23</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of JesusChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Walvoord, 22-23.

[68] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>295-96</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 295-96.

[69] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beale</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>64</RecNum><Pages>868</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.K. Beale</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1999</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook of Revelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>I.Howard Marshall and Donald A.Hagner</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>NewCentury Bible CommentarySeries</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Beale, 868.

[70] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Ewing</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>71</RecNum><Pages>22-54</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>2</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>D.RaganEwing</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2002</YEAR><TITLE>TheIdentification of Babylon the Harlot in the Book ofRevelation</TITLE><PUBLISHER>Th.M. thesis, Dallas TheologicalSeminary</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>D. Ragan Ewing, "The Identification of Babylon theHarlot in the Book of Revelation" (Th.M. thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary,2002), 63.

[71] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Morris</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>339</RecNum><Pages>14</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryMorris</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation Record</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Wheaton,Ill</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Tyndale</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Morris, The Revelation Record, 336.

[72] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beagley</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>65</RecNum><Pages>103</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>AlanJamesBeagley</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1987</YEAR><TITLE>The&apos;Stitz Im Leben&apos; of the Apocalypse with Particular Referenceto the Role of the Church&apos;s Enemies</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>NewYork</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>deGruyter</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Beagley, 103, n. 343.

[73] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beagley</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>65</RecNum><Pages>103</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>AlanJamesBeagley</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1987</YEAR><TITLE>The&apos;Stitz Im Leben&apos; of the Apocalypse with Particular Referenceto the Role of the Church&apos;sEnemies</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>New York</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>deGruyter</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid., 103.

[74] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>October-December1987</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><Pages>437-38</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>October-December1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>Bibliotheca Sacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>433-449</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Dyer., 437-38.

[75] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>October-December1987</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><Pages>438</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>October-December1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>433-449</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid., 438.

[76] ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>67</RecNum><Pages>40</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation1 to 7: An Exegetical Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 1 to 7: An Exegetical Commentary, 40.

[77] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Ladd</Author><Year>1974</Year><RecNum>114</RecNum><Pages>76-101</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>GeorgeEldonLadd</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1974</YEAR><TITLE>ThePresence of the Future</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>George Eldon Ladd, The Presence of the Future (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974), ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Ladd</Author><Year>1972</Year><RecNum>105</RecNum><Pages>227-28</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>GeorgeEldon Ladd</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1972</YEAR><TITLE>ACommentary on the Revelation of John</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>1979</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>227-28.

[78] ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>81</RecNum><Pages>458</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2002</YEAR><TITLE>EvangelicalHermeneutics: The New Versus the Old</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Kregel</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Robert L. Thomas, Evangelical Hermeneutics: The NewVersus the Old (Grand Rapids: Kregel,2002), 458. Zuck notes, "A prostitute obviously cannot sit on seven hills at once(17:9) and so we conclude that the hills are symbols." Roy B. Zuck, BasicBible Interpretation: A Practical Guide to Discovering Biblical Truth (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1991), 244.

[79] For example, in order to apply the seven kings to Romanhistory, most interpreters leave out Galba, Otho, and Vitellius who reignedbriefly between Nero and Vespasian. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Ladd</Author><Year>1972</Year><RecNum>105</RecNum><Pages>228-29</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>GeorgeEldonLadd</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1972</YEAR><TITLE>ACommentary on the Revelation of John</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>1979</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ladd, 228-29. Moreover, it is unclear with which emperor the countshould begin. For example, should the count begin with Julius Caesar whoappears first in the list in most of the ancient sources or with Augustus, whowas the emperor in power when the empire officially began? Perhaps the countshould begin with Caligula, who was the first persecuting emperor? Should wecount all of the emperors or only those deified by an act of the Senate? Someinterpreters have attempted to resolve these problems by taking the numberseven allegorically. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Robinson</Author><Year>1976</Year><RecNum>109</RecNum><Pages>245-49</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>A.T. Robinson</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1976</YEAR><TITLE>Redatingthe NewTestament</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Philadelphia</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Westminster</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>A. T. Robinson, Redating the New Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), 245-49.However, this approach ends up defeating the Romeinterpretation, which is built upon a literal understanding of the seven hills.In addition, the allegorical approach fails to take into account the literaluse of the number seven elsewhere in Revelation (Rev 2-3). The allegoricalapproach also seems inconsistent with the amount of intricacy and method ofdescription presented by John. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beckwith</Author><Year>1919</Year><RecNum>108</RecNum><Pages>708</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>IsbonT.Beckwith</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1919</YEAR><TITLE>TheApocalypse of John</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>NewYork</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Macmillan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Isbon T. Beckwith, The Apocalypse of John (New York: Macmillan, 1919), 708.In sum, these types of interpretive dilemmas begin toproliferate when the seven kings of Revelation 17:10 are understood as sevenindividual kings of Roman history. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Caird</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>85</RecNum><Pages>217-18</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.B.Caird</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of SaintJohn</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>Henry Chadwick</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>Black&apos;sNew TestamentCommentaries</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>London</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Black</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Caird, The Revelation of Saint John, 217-18.

[80] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Aune</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>82</RecNum><Pages>947</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>DavidE.Aune</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1997</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation17-22</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>Bruce M.Metzger</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>WordBiblicalCommentary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ThomasNelson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Aune, Revelation 17-22, 947. Beale designates five such schemes. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Beale</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>64</RecNum><Pages>874</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>G.K. Beale</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1999</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>I.Howard Marshall and Donald A.Hagner</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>NewCentury Bible CommentarySeries</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Eerdmans</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Beale, 874.

[81] In Daniel 2:37-38,Daniel wrote that the head of gold is a king. In Daniel 2:39, Daniel wrote that thebreast and arms of silver were another kingdom. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>October-December1987</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><Pages>440</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>October-December1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>433-449</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Dyer., 440. Similarly, in 7:17, Daniel describes the four beastsas kings. In Daniel 7:23, hedescribes the fourth beast as a kingdom. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>106</RecNum><Pages>203</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>AClassical Dispensationalist View ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>C.MarvinPate</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>FourViews on the Book of Revelation</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Zondervan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote> ADDINEN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>106</RecNum><Pages>226</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1998</YEAR><TITLE>AClassical Dispensationalist View ofRevelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>C.Marvin Pate</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>FourViews on the Book of Revelation</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Zondervan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Robert L. Thomas, "A Classical DispensationalistView of Revelation," in Four Views on the Book of Revelation, ed. C. Marvin Pate (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998),203. Thus, Daniel obviously uses kings and kingdomsinterchangeably.

[82] Walvoord identifies the seven kingdoms as those thathave persecuted and will persecute Israel throughout her existence. The fivefallen kingdoms include Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, and Greece. Rome wasthe kingdom reigning when John wrote. The seventh kingdom will be the revivedRoman Empire headed by the antichrist. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>251-54</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of Jesus Christ</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Walvoord, 251-54.

[83] This position isthe one adopted by most classical and revised dispensational scholars.

[84] Ryrie bestsummarizes the position when he notes, "The harlot is also the mother ofharlots. In other words, many groups will join together under the one harlot,in a kind of federated church. With the identification in Revelation 17:9 andwith the interrelation of Babylon and practices of the Roman Catholic Church,it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the Roman church is the harlot.But this is not the whole picture, for the apostate church is not merely theRoman Church. It will include other groups in a family relationship with theirmother. The tie that will bind them will be their harlotry." ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ryrie</Author><Year>1968</Year><RecNum>139</RecNum><Pages>101-2</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesCaldwell Ryrie</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1968</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Charles Caldwell Ryrie, Revelation (Chicago: Moody Press, 1968), 101-2.

[85] Walvoord explains,"Babylon, ecclesiastically symbolized by the woman in Revelation 17, proposes acommon worship and a common religion through uniting in a world church. This isdestroyed by the beast in Revelation 17:16 who thus fulfills the will of God(Rev 17:17). Babylon, politically symbolized by the great city of Revelation18, attempts to achieve its domination of the world by a world common marketand a world government. These are destroyed by Christ at His second coming."ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>267</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of JesusChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Walvoord, The Revelation of Jesus Christ, 267.

[86] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>243-48</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of JesusChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid., 243-48.

[87] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>257</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of Jesus Christ</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid., 257.

[88] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>257</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of JesusChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid.

[89] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>263</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of JesusChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid., 263. Such inconsistent exegesis can only be explained interms of a presuppositional bias that sees Revelation 17 as religious andRevelation 18 as political. Perhaps the source of this presupposition is theScofield Reference Bible, which contains an explanatory note advocating thereligious Babylon and political Babylon distinction. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Scofield</Author><Year>1909</Year><RecNum>141</RecNum><Pages>1369-70</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>9</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>C.I. Scofield</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1909</YEAR><TITLE>TheNew Scofield Reference Bible</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>NewYork</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Oxford UniversityPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>C. I. Scofield, ed., The New Scofield ReferenceBible (New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1909), 1369-70.

[90] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>July-September1987</Year><RecNum>96</RecNum><Pages>311-13</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>July-September1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part1)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>305-17</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Charles H. Dyer, "The Identity of Babylon inRevelation 17-18 (Part 1)," Bibliotheca Sacra 144 (July-September 1987): 311-13.

[91] Furthermore, most of the arguments used to prove twoBabylons have been answered. For example, the phrase "after these things" (meta tauta) in Revelation 18:1 can simply indicate the timesequence in which the visions were revealed to John (chronological use) ratherthan something that must take place later chronologically (eschatological use)because the phrase is accompanied by a verb of perception "I saw." Whenever averb of perception accompanies "after these things" in Revelation, the phraseis used chronologically (4:1a; 7:1; 7:9; 15:5; 19:1) rather thaneschatologically (1:19; 4:1b;9:12; 20:3). In addition, it is claimed that Babylon in chapter 17 is destroyedin a different manner and by a different source than the Babylon in chapter 18.However, this contention is without merit because the Babylons in both chaptersare both destroyed by fire (17:16; 18:9) and by God (17:17; 18:8). Moreover, itis claimed that the response to the destruction of the two Babylons isdifferent because chapter 17 records the kings hating the harlot (17:16) andchapter 18 records the kings weeping over the harlot (18:9). However, thisdiscrepancy can be explained. The kings in 17:16 are those who unite with thebeast to defeat the harlot while the kings in 18:8 are those engaged incommerce with Babylon mourning over the loss of their source of revenue.Finally, it is claimed that the Babylon in chapter 17 is referred to as a womanwhile the Babylon in chapter 18 is referred to as a city. However, thisargument collapses upon realizing that 17:18 explains that the woman representsa city. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>July-September1987</Year><RecNum>96</RecNum><Pages>305-11</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>July-September1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part1)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>Bibliotheca Sacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>305-17</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid.: 305-11.

[92] Seiss representsan interpreter from a previous generation that held this view. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Seiss</Author><Year>1909</Year><RecNum>110</RecNum><Pages>397</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>J.A.Seiss</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1909</YEAR><TITLE>TheApocalypse: Lectures on the Book ofRevelation</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>NewYork</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Charles C.Cook</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>Grand Rapids, Zondervan,1964</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>J. A. Seiss, The Apocalypse: Lectures on the Book ofRevelation (New York: Charles C. Cook,1909; reprint, Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 1964), 397. Modern scholarswho hold the view include Dyer and Thomas.

[93] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>October-December1987</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><Pages>436</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>October-December1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>433-449</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Dyer, "The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18(Part 2)," 436. Bullinger is another commentator who accurately identifies the woman asa city based upon Rev 17:18. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Bullinger</Author><Year>1935</Year><RecNum>341</RecNum><Pages>57-59</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>E.W.Bullinger</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1935</YEAR><TITLE>TheApocalypse or &quot;The Day of the Lord&quot;</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GreatBritain</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Hollen Street</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>London:Samuel Bagster &amp; Sons,1972</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>E. W. Bullinger, The Apocalypse or "The Day of theLord" (Great Britain: Hollen Street,1935; reprint, London: Samuel Bagster & Sons, 1972), ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Bullinger</Author><Year>1935</Year><RecNum>341</RecNum><Pages>509,557-58</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>E.W.Bullinger</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1935</YEAR><TITLE>TheApocalypse or &quot;The Day of theLord&quot;</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GreatBritain</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>HollenStreet</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>London: Samuel Bagster &amp;Sons, 1972</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>509, 557-58.

[94] ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>October-December1987</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><Pages>436</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>October-December1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>433-449</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Dyer, "The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18(Part 2)," 434.

[95] Armageddon is an actual geographic area located inNorthern Israel.

[96] A similar pattern is found in Galatians 4:24-25 wherethe text itself uses the word "allegorically" to explain that the city ofJerusalem is being figuratively used of Hagar, Mount Sinai, and the OldCovenant. These texts in no way deny Jerusalem as a literal city. Rather, theyare simply saying that Jerusalem has a spiritual dimension in addition to beinga literal city.

[97] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>206-207</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 206-207.

[98] Morris, Revelation Record, 323. Just as Wall Street and Madison Avenue areliteral cities and systems emanating from those literal cities, such will bethe case for future Babylon. Charles Ryrie, Revelation, New Edition, Everyman's Bible Commentary (Chicago:Moody, 1996), 116. Just as the Tower of Babel represented a religious systememanating from a literal city in Shinar, so will be future Babylon.

[99] ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote> ADDINEN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>206-207</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 207. Interestingly, the Rev 9:14 reference anticipates thecoming of a host of demons to kill one third of humanity. The Rev 16:12reference anticipates the coming of the kings of the east. In Scripture, thedesignation "east" is typically used to describe the region of Babylon (Gen2:8; Matt 2:2). These connections between the Euphrates and the anticipation ofevil point to the fact that something evil is occurring eastward of theEuphrates. The rebuilt city of Babylon functioning as the headquarters of theantichrist during the tribulation period furnishes a plausible explanation ofsuch evil. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Hitchcock</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><Pages>79-91</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MarkHitchcock</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>TheSecond Coming of Babylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Sisters,OR</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Multnomah Publishers</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Mark Hitchcock, The Second Coming of Babylon (Sisters, OR: Multnomah Publishers, 2003), 107-108.

[100] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>67</RecNum><Pages>23-28</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation1 to 7: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 1 to 7: An Exegetical Commentary, 40.

[101] If Babylon means Babylon in all of its nearly 300 OldTestament uses, why would the use of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 be the singleexception to this rule? This point is particularly noticeable when noting therelationship between Revelation and Daniel. Revelation alludes to Daniel morethan any other Old Testament book. In Daniel, Babylon always refers to literalBabylon. Given the symbiosis between Revelation and Daniel, why shouldRevelation's treatment of Babylon not be understood literally as well? ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Hitchcock</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><Pages>107-08</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MarkHitchcock</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>TheSecond Coming of Babylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Sisters,OR</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MultnomahPublishers</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Hitchcock, The Second Coming of Babylon, 105.

[102] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>283</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>307</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>307. Moreover, Revelation 18:17-18, which describes thosewho make their living from the sea standing a far off and wailing at the sightof Babylon's destruction, fits well with the geography of Babylon on theEuphrates. In ancient times, the Euphrates was navigable for ships for some 500miles from its mouth. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>316-17</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Ibid., 316-17. According to Henry Morris, "Babylon is very near thegeographical center of all the earth's land masses. It is within navigabledistances to the Persian Gulf and is at the crossroads of the three greatcontinents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Thus, there is no more ideal locationanywhere for a world trade center, a world banking center, a world educationalcenter, or especially, a world capital!" ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Morris</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>339</RecNum><Pages>349</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryMorris</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation Record</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Wheaton,Ill</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Tyndale</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Morris, The Revelation Record, 349.

[103] These passages not only call attention to Babylonthrough unfulfilled prophecy, but they also do so by strategically placingtheir Babylon oracles first (Isa) and last (Jer) in their larger units dealingwith the oracles against the nations and by devoting more space to Babylon thanany other nation. Eugene H. Merrill and ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>37</RecNum><Pages>825-26</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2001</YEAR><TITLE>OldTestamentExplorer</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>CharlesR. Swindoll and Roy B.Zuck</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>SwindollLeadershipLibrary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>WordPublishing</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Charles H. Dyer, Old Testament Explorer, ed. Charles R. Swindoll and Roy B. Zuck, SwindollLeadership Library (Nashville: Word Publishing, 2001), 538-39, 633-42.

[104] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>October-December1987</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><Pages>443-49</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>October-December1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>Bibliotheca Sacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>433-449</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Dyer, "The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18(Part 2)," 443-49.

[105] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>LaHaye</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>343</RecNum><Pages>135</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>LaHaye,Tim</AUTHOR><AUTHOR>Jenkins,Jerry</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1999</YEAR><TITLE>AreWe Living in the End Times?</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Wheaton,Ill</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Tyndale</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins, Are We Living in theEnd Times? (Wheaton, Ill: Tyndale,1999), 135.

[106] The reference to the darkening of the sun and the moon(Isa 13:10) is identical to how the Second Coming is described (Matt 24:29).

[107] The reference to mankind becoming scarcer than gold(Isa 13:12) is reminiscent of how the tribulation is described (Matt 24:21-22).

[108] Babylon obviously did not experience a complete andfinal desolation following 539 B.C. Consider the following: Herodotus visited and wroteabout Babylon, Alexander the Great visited and died in Babylon, Seleucusconquered Babylon, Strabo visited and wrote about Babylon, Jews from Babylonwere present on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:8-10), Peter wrote First Peterfrom Babylon (1 Peter 5:13), and the Babylonian Talmud was created in Babylon.See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Hitchcock</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><Pages>85-86</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MarkHitchcock</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>TheSecond Coming of Babylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Sisters,OR</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MultnomahPublishers</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Hitchcock, The Second Coming of Babylon, 85-86.

[109] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Hitchcock</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><Pages>79-91</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MarkHitchcock</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>TheSecond Coming of Babylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Sisters,OR</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MultnomahPublishers</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Hitchcock, The Second Coming of Babylon, 79-91; Morris, Revelation Record, 348.

[110] In sum, it is quite plain that the prophecies of Isa13-14 and Jer 50-51 were never fully exhausted in the historic fall of Babylon.The predicted cataclysm never came to pass. In fact, it is safe to say thatalthough the city fell politically to the Medo-Persian Empire in 539 B.C., it neverfell physically. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Garland</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>337</RecNum><Pages>3.17.1</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>16</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>TonyGarland</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2004</YEAR><TITLE><styles><styleface='2' start='1'></style><stylestart='22'></style></styles>&quot;RevelationCommentary&quot;</TITLE><PUBLISHER>online:www.spiritandtruth.org</PUBLISHER><VOLUME>2004</VOLUME><NUMBER>March1</NUMBER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Tony Garland, "Revelation Commentary," online: www.spiritandtruth.org, accessed March 1 2004,3.17.2.1. Interestingly, because the Medes and Persians diverted the waters ofthe Euphrates and entered the city at night through the dried up channel, thecity fell by surprise. Half the city was captured while the rest were not evenaware of what had happened. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Unger</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>344</RecNum><Pages>1462</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MerillF. Unger</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2002</YEAR><TITLE>Unger&apos;sCommentary on the OldTestament</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chattanooga,TN</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>AMG</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Merill F. Unger, Unger's Commentary on the OldTestament (Chattanooga, TN: AMG,2002), 1462. Walvoord best summarizes the matter when he notes, "As far as thehistoric fulfillment is concerned, it is obvious from both Scripture andhistory that these verses have not been literally fulfilled. The city ofBabylon continued to flourish after the Medes conquered it, and though itsglory dwindled, especially after the control of the Medes and the Persiansended in 323 B.C., the city continued in some form or substance until A.D. 1000 and didnot experience a sudden termination such as is anticipated in this prophecy." ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1967</Year><RecNum>112</RecNum><Pages>63-64</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1967</YEAR><TITLE>TheNations in Prophecy</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Zondervan</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>John F. Walvoord, The Nations in Prophecy (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1967), 63-64.

[111] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>37</RecNum><Pages>825-26</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2001</YEAR><TITLE>OldTestamentExplorer</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>CharlesR. Swindoll and Roy B.Zuck</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>SwindollLeadershipLibrary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>WordPublishing</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Merrill and Dyer, Old Testament Explorer, 825-26. Revelation 17-18 speaks of these same elements when itmentions wickedness (17:2), commerce (18:10-18), and religion (17:2) in thecity of Babylon (Rev 17:18).

[112] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Hitchcock</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><Pages>109</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MarkHitchcock</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>TheSecond Coming of Babylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Sisters,OR</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MultnomahPublishers</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Hitchcock, The Second Coming of Babylon, 109.

[113] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>207</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL.Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation8 to 22: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary, 207.

[114] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gregg</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>63</RecNum><Pages>431</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>9</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>SteveGregg</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1997</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation:Four Views, A ParallelCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ThomasNelson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Gregg, ed., 431.

[115] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Pink</Author><Year>1923</Year><RecNum>345</RecNum><Pages>279</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>ArthurPink</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1923</YEAR><TITLE>TheAntichrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Swengel, PA</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>I.C.Herendeen</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Hitchcock</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><Pages>96-99</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MarkHitchcock</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>TheSecond Coming of Babylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Sisters, OR</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MultnomahPublishers</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Arthur Pink, The Antichrist (Swengel, PA: I. C. Herendeen, 1923), 259.

[116] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Garland</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>337</RecNum><Pages>3.17.1</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>16</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>TonyGarland</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2004</YEAR><TITLE><styles><styleface='2' start='1'></style><stylestart='22'></style></styles>&quot;RevelationCommentary&quot;</TITLE><PUBLISHER>online:www.spiritandtruth.org</PUBLISHER><VOLUME>2004</VOLUME><NUMBER>March1</NUMBER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Garland, "Revelation Commentary," 3.17.1. Fruchtenbaum similarly observes, "The headquarters ofthis one world religion will be the rebuilt city of Babylon, the mother of idolatry, for it was here that idolatry and falsereligion began (Genesis 11:1-9)." ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Fruchtenbaum</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>145</RecNum><Pages>454-59</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>ArnoldG.Fruchtenbaum</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>Footstepsof theMessiah</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Tustin</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ArielMinistries</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Arnold G. Fruchtenbaum, Footsteps of the Messiah (Tustin: Ariel Ministries, 1983), 237-38. Consequently, the Babylonian mystery religions wereexported throughout all the nationsof the earth. Babel is also the place of the origin of the infamousmother-child cult. According to extra biblical tradition, Nimrod's wife,Semiramis founded the secret Babylonian religion. She also had a son namedTammuz through an alleged miraculous conception. According to tradition, Tammuzwas killed by a wild animal and miraculously restored to life. See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>336</RecNum><Pages>2:970</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF.Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>JohnF. Walvoord and Roy B.Zuck</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibleKnowledge Commentary</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>ColoradoSprings, CO</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Chariot VictorPublishing</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>John F. Walvoord, "Revelation," in Bible KnowledgeCommentary, ed. John F. Walvoord andRoy B. Zuck (Colorado Springs, CO: Chariot Victor Publishing, 1983), 2:970. Hitchcock explains the global influence of this motherchild cult that began at Babel, "The legend of Semiramis and Tammuz spreadaround the world. Their names were changed in different places, but the basicstory remained the same. In Assyria, the mother was Ishtar, the son was Tammuz.In Phoenicia, the mother was Astarte and the son was Baal. In Egypt, she wasIsis and her son was Osiris, or Horus. In Greece she was Aphrodite and her sonwas Eros. For the Romans, the mother was Venus and the son was Cupid." See ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Hitchcock</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><Pages>42</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MarkHitchcock</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>TheSecond Coming of Babylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Sisters,OR</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MultnomahPublishers</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Hitchcock, The Second Coming of Babylon, 42.

[117] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Bullinger</Author><Year>1935</Year><RecNum>341</RecNum><Pages>57-59</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>E.W.Bullinger</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1935</YEAR><TITLE>TheApocalypse or &quot;The Day of theLord&quot;</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Great Britain</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>HollenStreet</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>London: Samuel Bagster &amp;Sons, 1972</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Bullinger, The Apocalypse or "The Day of the Lord," 506; Pink, The Antichrist, 258-59.

[118] Also, whenRevelation 18:5 says, "her sins have piled up as high as heaven," the allusionis possibly to the use of bricks in building the Tower of Babel. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Walvoord</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>260</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>JohnF. Walvoord</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1966</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of JesusChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Walvoord, The Revelation of Jesus Christ, 260.

[119] ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hitchcock</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><Pages>42</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MarkHitchcock</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>TheSecond Coming of Babylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Sisters,OR</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MultnomahPublishers</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Hitchcock, The Second Coming of Babylon, 37. The fact that human rebellion will one day cycle backto where it all began comes as no surprise to diligent Bible students due to numerousparallel themes or common denominators running through both the books ofGenesis and Revelation. Of this phenomenon, Henry Morris observes, "The Book ofRevelation is the sequel to the Book of Genesis, the two books togetherbounding all history and bounding all of God's revelations to mankind. Theyconstitute the alpha and omega of God's written word, the Book of Beginningsand the Book of Unveilings." ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Morris</Author><Year>1983</Year><RecNum>339</RecNum><Pages>14</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryMorris</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1983</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation Record</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Wheaton, Ill</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Tyndale</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Morris, The Revelation Record, 14. Examples include the thematic parallels between theprobationary world of Gen 1-2 and the eternal state of Rev 21-22 as well as theparallels between the cursed world as depicted in Gen 3 and the eternal stateof Rev 21-22.[119] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Morris</Author><Year>1976</Year><RecNum>340</RecNum><Pages>33-34</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HenryMorris</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1976</YEAR><TITLE>TheGenesis Record</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Henry Morris, The Genesis Record (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1976), 33-34. Foranother extensive list of thematic comparisons and contrasts between the Booksof Genesis and Revelation, see ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Bullinger</Author><Year>1935</Year><RecNum>341</RecNum><Pages>57-59</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>E.W.Bullinger</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1935</YEAR><TITLE>TheApocalypse or &quot;The Day of theLord&quot;</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GreatBritain</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>HollenStreet</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>London: Samuel Bagster &amp;Sons, 1972</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Bullinger, The Apocalypse or "The Day of the Lord," 57-59.

[120] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>October-December1987</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><Pages>441-43</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>October-December1987</YEAR><TITLE>The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18 (Part2)</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>BibliothecaSacra</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>144</VOLUME><PAGES>433-449</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Dyer, "The Identity of Babylon in Revelation 17-18(Part 2)," 441-43.

[121] Apocalyptic literature is an extra-biblical literarygenre that flourished around the time of Revelation's composition. The Bookof Enoch, Apocalypse of Baruch, Book of Jubilees, Assumption of Moses, Psalmsof Solomon, Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, and Sibylline Oracles as well as Revelation are all considered to be part ofthis literary era. This genre is comprised of works sharing the followingcommon cluster of characteristics: extensive use of symbolism, vision as themajor means of revelation (Rev 1:10-11), angelic guides (Rev 1:1), activity ofangels and demons (Rev 12:7-8), focus on the end of the current age and theinauguration of the age to come (Rev 1:3), urgent expectation of the end ofearthly conditions in the immediate future (Rev 21:1), the end as a cosmiccatastrophe, new salvation that is paradisal in character (Rev 21-22),manifestation of the kingdom of God (Rev 11:15), a mediator with royalfunctions (Rev 3:7), dualism with God and Satan as the leaders, spiritual orderdetermining the flow of history, pessimism about mans' ability to change thecourse of events, periodization and determinism of human history (Rev 6:11),other worldly journeys (Rev 4:1-2), the catchword glory (Rev 4:11), and a finalshowdown between good and evil (Rev 19:11-21). The above citations fromRevelation show that it has at least some affinities with these extra biblicalworks. This list was adapted from ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Murphy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>115</RecNum><Pages>130-33</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>FrederickJ.Murphy</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2002</YEAR><TITLE>EarlyJudaism: The Exile to the Time ofJesus</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Peabody, MA</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Hendrickson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Frederick J. Murphy, Early Judaism: The Exile to theTime of Jesus (Peabody, MA:Hendrickson, 2002), 130-33.

[122] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Gregg</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>63</RecNum><Pages>431</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>9</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>SteveGregg</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1997</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation:Four Views, A Parallel Commentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Nashville</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>ThomasNelson</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Gregg, ed., 11.

[123] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>67</RecNum><Pages>23-28</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1992</YEAR><TITLE>Revelation1 to 7: An ExegeticalCommentary</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPress</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Revelation 1 to 7: An Exegetical Commentary, 23-28.

[124] ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>81</RecNum><Pages>338</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>RobertL. Thomas</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2002</YEAR><TITLE>EvangelicalHermeneutics: The New Versus the Old</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Kregel</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas, Evangelical Hermeneutics: The New Versus theOld, 338. I took the liberty of slightly modifying the order ofitems in the chart in order to better harmonize them with the precedingdiscussion. Oepke similarly notes, "[Revelation] has many affinities withliterature to which we now refer [i.e. apocalyptic], though it cannot be simply classified with it." ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Oepke</Author><Year>1965</Year><RecNum>507</RecNum><Pages>3:578</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>7</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>AlbrechtOepke</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1965</YEAR><TITLE>Kalupto</TITLE><SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_AUTHOR>G.Kittel</SECONDARY_AUTHOR></SECONDARY_AUTHORS><SECONDARY_TITLE>TheologicalDictionary of the NewTestament</SECONDARY_TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><SUBSIDIARY_AUTHORS><SUBSIDIARY_AUTHOR>G.W.Bromiley</SUBSIDIARY_AUTHOR></SUBSIDIARY_AUTHORS></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Albrecht Oepke, "Kalupto," in Theological Dictionaryof the New Testament, ed. G. Kittel,trans. G.W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965), 3:578.

[125] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Pate</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>88</RecNum><Pages>41</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>C.MarvinPate</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>Iraq-Babylonof the End Times</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Pate, Iraq-Babylon of the End Times, 41.

[126] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Heater</Author><Year>March1998</Year><RecNum>124</RecNum><Pages>31-36</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>HomerHeater</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>March1998</YEAR><TITLE>Do the Prophets Teach that Babylonia Will Rebuiltin the Eschaton?</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>Journal of the EvangelicalTheologicalSociety</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>41</VOLUME><PAGES>23-43</PAGES><DATE>March1988</DATE></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Homer Heater, "Do the Prophets Teach ThatBabylonia Will Be Rebuilt in the Eschaton?," Journal of the EvangelicalTheological Society 41 (March 1998):31-36.

[127] In addition to failing to consider such language ofrestoration, Heater's approach poses other problems. It opens the door forviewing other portions of prophetic Scripture as having found merely an"essential fulfillment." For example, if Isa 13-14 and Jer 50-51 were"essentially fulfilled" in 539 B.C., then why cannot the same interpretive approach beused to argue that Matt 24-25 or Rev 4-22 were also "essentially fulfilled" in A.D. 70? Moreover,if it is indeed God's desire to communicate future events in Isa 13-14 and Jer50-51 and yet the language of these texts is insufficient to communicatefuturism, one wonders how God could have better communicated His point. Even ifthese passages were essentially fulfilled in 539 B.C, Old Testament support for arevived Babylon can still be found in Zechariah 5:5-11.

[128] Pate and Hays either expressly or tacitly level thischarge in several instances. ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Pate</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>88</RecNum><Pages>40,97, 100</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>C.Marvin Pate</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>Iraq-Babylonof the End Times</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>GrandRapids</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Baker</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Pate, Iraq-Babylon of the End Times, 40, 97, 100.

[129] ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Newell</Author><Year>1935</Year><RecNum>130</RecNum><Pages>268</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>WilliamR. Newell</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1935</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook ofRevelation</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>GracePublications</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>William R. Newell, The Book of Revelation (Chicago: Grace Publications, 1935), 268; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Jennings</Author><Year>1937</Year><RecNum>131</RecNum><Pages>476</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>FrederickC.Jennings</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1937</YEAR><TITLE>Studiesin Revelation</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>New York</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>LoizeauxBrothers</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Frederick C. Jennings, Studies in Revelation (New York: Loizeaux Brothers, 1937), 476; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Cooper</Author><Year>1942</Year><RecNum>132</RecNum><Pages>114</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>DavidL.Cooper</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1942</YEAR><TITLE>TheWorld&apos;s Greatest Library GraphicallyIllustrated</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>LosAngeles</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Biblical ResearchSociety</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>David L. Cooper, The World's Greatest LibraryGraphically Illustrated (Los Angeles:Biblical Research Society, 1942), 114; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Lang</Author><Year>1948</Year><RecNum>133</RecNum><Pages>305</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>GeorgeH.Lang</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1948</YEAR><TITLE>TheRevelation of JesusChrist</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>London</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Paternoster</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>George H. Lang, The Revelation of Jesus Christ (London: Paternoster, 1948), 305; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Seiss</Author><Year>1909</Year><RecNum>110</RecNum><Pages>397</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>J.A.Seiss</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1909</YEAR><TITLE>TheApocalypse: Lectures on the Book ofRevelation</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>NewYork</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Charles C.Cook</PUBLISHER><REPRINT_EDITION>Grand Rapids, Zondervan,1964</REPRINT_EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Seiss, 397; ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Larkin</Author><Year>1919</Year><RecNum>129</RecNum><Pages>150</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>ClarenceLarkin</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1919</YEAR><TITLE>TheBook of Revelation</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Glenside,PA</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>Rev. Clarence LarkinEstate</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Clarence Larkin, The Book of Revelation (Glenside, PA: Rev. Clarence Larkin Estate, 1919),150. For a more extensive list of early commentators who held to the literalBabylon view see ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Hitchcock</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><Pages>27-32</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>MarkHitchcock</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>TheSecond Coming of Babylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Sisters,OR</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MultnomahPublishers</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Hitchcock, The Second Coming of Babylon, 27-32; ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Ice</Author><Year>March2003</Year><RecNum>346</RecNum><Pages>5</Pages><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>0</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>ThomasIce</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>March 2003</YEAR><TITLE>Babylonin Bible Prophecy</TITLE><SECONDARY_TITLE>Pre-TribPerspectives</SECONDARY_TITLE><VOLUME>7</VOLUME><NUMBER>11</NUMBER><PAGES>1-5</PAGES></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Thomas Ice, "Babylon in Bible Prophecy," Pre-TribPerspectives 7, no. 11 (March 2003):5.

[130] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>127</RecNum><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH.Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1991</YEAR><TITLE>TheRise of Babylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Wheaton</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>TyndaleHouse</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Charles H. Dyer, The Rise of Babylon (Wheaton: Tyndale House, 1991).

[131] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>128</RecNum><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>1</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>2003</YEAR><TITLE>TheRise OfBabylon</TITLE><PLACE_PUBLISHED>Chicago</PLACE_PUBLISHED><PUBLISHER>MoodyPublishers</PUBLISHER><EDITION>rev.</EDITION></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Charles H. Dyer, The Rise of Babylon, rev. ed. (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2003).

[132] ADDIN EN.CITE<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dyer</Author><Year>1979</Year><RecNum>134</RecNum><MDL><REFERENCE_TYPE>2</REFERENCE_TYPE><AUTHORS><AUTHOR>CharlesH. Dyer</AUTHOR></AUTHORS><YEAR>1979</YEAR><TITLE>TheIdentity of Babylon in Revelation 17 and 18</TITLE><PUBLISHER>Th.M.thesis, Dallas TheologicalSeminary</PUBLISHER></MDL></Cite></EndNote>Charles H. Dyer, "The Identity of Babylon in Revelation17 and 18" (Th.M. thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary, 1979).