A Short History Of Dispensationalism

Dr. Thomas Ice

It is doubtful if there has beenany other circle of men [dispensationalists] who have done more by theirinfluence in preaching, teaching and writing to promote a love for Bible study,a hunger for the deeper Christian life, a passion for evangelism and zeal formissions in the history of American Christianity.

-DispensationalistCritic, George E. Ladd

Thefirst systematic expression of dispensationalism was formulated by J. N. Darbysometime during the late 1820s and 1830s in the British Isles. I believe thatDarby's development was the culmination of various influences which producedwithin his thought one of the most literal approaches to Bible interpretationin history and a theology which distinguishes God's plan for Israel from God'splan for the church. The most well known feature of dispensational theology isthe much-debated pretribulational rapture doctrine.

Nosingle element of dispensational thought can be said to be the unique domain ofdispensationalism alone. It is true that some hold to the Pre-Trib positionthat do not want to be called dispensationalists, but it is equally true thatit was dispensational thought which provided the theological rationale for thePre-Trib viewpoint. Even the important "Israel-church" distinction has beenheld by non-dispensationalists like Nathaniel West and George Peters. Dispensationalists are not just characterized by the elements of theirtheology, but also, their arrangement in relationship to one another.

In order to be adispensationalist, one has to hold to a literal approach of interpreting theBible. When compared to other interpretative approaches, dispensationaliststake the text more literally. For example, belief in literal days and years inGenesis as well as literal days, months, and years in Revelation aremaintained. This means that we see Bible prophecy from a futurist, as opposedto an idealist, preterist, or historicist perspective. A dispensationalistholds to the above mentioned "Israel-church" distinction as well as thePre-Trib rapture. This means that current church-age believers are of thespiritual seed of Abraham, but are not spiritual Israel. Dispensationalistsbelieve that God has a distinctive plan for ethnic and national Israel thatincludes their spiritual restoration and conversion, as well as a specificgeographic destiny. On the other hand, the church began on the day ofPentecost and will end with the rapture. Her mission is to preach the gospel,disciple, and nurture believers, and to separate from evil by living a holylife in this current dark age. While the church age will be characterized byworldwide growth, at the same time the age ends in doctrinal and moral ruin andapostasy. Based on their literal interpretation of Scripture,dispensationalists believe that God has administered history in successivestages, during each of which man is tested, fails, and suffers judgment. Thislinear progress of history began in innocence, continued with man's fall, waspunctuated by the cross of Christ, and moves toward the second coming and themillennium.

Although Darby was the first tosystematize dispensationalism, I believe that rudimentary features can be foundprior to the nineteenth century, especially in the early church and the threehundred years prior to Darby. Opponents often debate a pre-Darby heritage, butI think the evidence does support our claim that there are historical andtheological antecedents to the modern system.

The Early Church

Crude, but clear, schemes ofages and dispensations are found in ante-Nicene fathers such as Justin Martyr(110-165), Irenaeus (130-200), Tertullian (c. 160-220), Methodius (d. 311), andVictorinus of Petau (d. 304). Dispensationalist, Larry Crutchfield concludedthat,

Regardless of the number ofeconomies to which the Fathers held, the fact remains that they set forth whatcan only be considered a doctrine of ages and dispensations which foreshadowsdispensationalism as it is held today. Their views were certainly less welldefined and less sophisticated. But it is evident that the early Fathersviewed God's dealings with His people in dispensational terms. . . . In everymajor area of importance in the early church one finds rudimentary features ofdispensationalism that bear a striking resemblance to their contemporaryoffspring ("Ages and Dispensations, "398).

Crutchfield charted these Fathers' schemes in thefollowing chart which I have reproduced in an abbreviated form.

Justin Enoch/ Abraham MosesChrist Millennium

Martyr Noah

Adam Noah Moses Christ Millennium

Irenaeus to to to to

Noah Moses Christ Eternity

Tertullian Adam Noah Abraham Moses Christ Millennium

Crutchfield outlined the earlyFathers' views on Israel and the church, which is another feature important todispensationalism.

The Fathers (1)distinguished between the church and national Israel, (2) recognizeddistinctions among the differing peoples of God throughout biblical history,and (3) believed in the literal fulfillment of covenant promises in the earthlykingdom. . . . The contemporary dispensational position on Israel and thechurch is primarily a refinement and not a contradiction of the position of theante-Nicene church("Israel and the Church," 271.

There is no doubt that the position of the Fatherson the relationship between Israel and the church has problems. But certainelements in their thought place them close to, though not altogether within,the dispensational camp.

The Middle Ages

The Middle Ages were a time inwhich premillennialism, literal interpretation, dispensations, and anIsrael-church distinction were largely absent from theological discussion orwent underground.

The Reformation

The Reformation andpost-Reformation periods did much to restore a more intensive study of theBible to the church. For the first time ever, printing made literatureaccessible to most anyone. A greater effort was also put forth to systemizethe Bible within the light of Protestant theology. About 250 years beforeDarby, Reformed scholars developed a school of theology that is known as"Covenant Theology." With it, a precedent was established for viewing theologyfrom the perspective of an important concept like "covenant. " While others,like Jonathan Edwards (1703-58), wrote his "History of the Work of Redemption,"which viewed God's salvation of man progressively in history. Suchdevelopments were preparing the way for the birth of modern dispensationalism.

Dispensationalist, CharlesRyrie, has shown that for about 150 years prior to Darby, an increasing numberof theologians were articulating dispensational schemes of Biblical history (DispensationalismToday, 71-74). Pierre Poiret's scheme is seen in his six volume work, The Divine Economy (1687) as follows:

I. Infancy-tothe Deluge

II. Childhood-toMoses

III. Adolescence-tothe prophets

IV. Youth-to the coming ofChrist

V. Manhood-"some timeafter that"

VI. Old Age-"the time ofman's decay"

(V& VI are the church age)

VII. Renovationof all things-the millennium (Disp. Today, p. 71)

Note that Poiret stressed the ruin or decay of thechurch, a major theme in Darby's thinking.

Isaac Watts (1674-1748), thefamous theologian and hymn writer, also wrote about dispensations in aforty-page essay entitled "The Harmony of all the Religions which God everPrescribed to Men and all his Dispensations towards them." His definition ofdispensations is very close to modern statements.

The public dispensations of God towards men, are those wise and holyconstitutions of his will and government, revealed or some way manifested tothem, in the several successive periods or ages of the world, where in are contained the dutieswhich he expects from men, and the blessings which he promises, or encouragesthem to expect from him, here and hereafter; together with the sins which heforbids, and the punishments which he threatens to inflict on such sinners, orthe dispensations of God maybe described more briefly, as the appointed moral rules of God's dealing withmankind, considered as reasonable creatures, and as accountable to him fortheir behavior, both in this world and in that which is to come. Each of thesedispensations of God, may be represented as different religions, or at least,as different forms of religion, appointed for men in the several successiveages of the world.

Wattsdispensational scheme is as follows:

I. TheDispensation of Innocency

II. Adam afterthe Fall

III. The NoahicDispensation

IV. The AbrahamicDispensation

V. The MosaicDispensation

VI. The ChristianDispensation (Disp. Today,p. 73).

Darby's Life

Irishman, John Nelson Darby(1800-1882) is unquestionably the father of modern dispensationalism. Darbycame from a highly honorable family and received an excellent education. Heentered Trinity College, Dublin, at the age of fifteen and graduated withhighest honors as a Classical Gold Medalist at age eighteen.

Upon graduation he entered thelegal profession and was called to the Irish Chancery Bar at age 21. Shortlyafter entering the legal field, he was converted to Christ. In 1825 he enteredthe ministry within the Church of England and was given an Irish parish. Darbyengaged in a tireless and successful parish ministry that saw the conversion ofhundreds of Roman Catholics to Protestantism. Within a year he was ordained asa minister in the Church of England.

Soon after ordination he wasdisillusioned by a decree from his bishop that all converts to Anglicanismwould have to swear allegiance to the King of England. Darby saw this as acompromise with the Lordship of Christ and the decree greatly reduced hissuccess with Catholics. For a number of years he tried to reform the church,but met with little success. In 1829 he resigned from Anglicanism and becameindependent, following the polity of the Brethren, with whom he had alreadybeen meeting for a few years.

Even though once engaged to thebeautiful and wealthy Lady Powerscourt, Darby never married and lived anaustere life, ignoring the things of this world, by blending piety withbiblical scholarship. His only personal indulgence was the purchase of booksfor study, after that he gave most of his money to the poor.

Educational Influences Upon Darby

Many of the major tenets ofDarby's dispensationalism can be seen as influences of the faculty of TrinityCollege, Dublin where Darby was a student. His primary educational influencecame from Professor Richard Graves. Graves, a futurist postmillennialist,believed that prophecy must be interpreted literally. Elmore notes, "As odd asit may seem to modern dispensational premillennial literalists,postmillennialists in Graves' day were known for their literalism with respectto prophecy" ("A Critical Examination," 66). Graves argued, as do dispensationalists, that"unfulfilled prophecy was to be literally interpreted, and the Abrahamiccovenant treated as unconditional" (68). He also believed and defended aliteral, future national conversion and restoration of Israel to their land. He believed that the "conversion of Israel was imminent. Then a newdispensation would be inaugurated on planet earth" (71). Graves called the newera "a grand era in the Divine dispensations" (72). "Graves distinguishedbetween 'the Jewish scheme' (a phrase Darby would nearly wear out in years tocome!) or dispensations and the Gentile or Christian dispensation" (72). Thisdistinction was common among Anglicans in Darby's early years (73).

Elmore concluded that many ofthe theological themes and vocabulary in Darby can be traced to Graves and theDublin faculty.

The theological grist forDarby's later synthesis was certainly present at Trinity College in his studentdays. Darby was trained in an atmosphere in which it was commonplace to referto 'the Church of Christ' and 'the Jewish Nation' fulfilling different butrelated future roles. He was primed to anticipate a future dispensation inwhich Israel would play a distinctive part among the nations of the world,living in prosperity in their ancient land. (73-74)

While Darby supplied otheringredients to form dispensationalism, there is no question that like allpeople, he was influenced to a large extent by others in the formulation anddevelopment of his thought.

Literal Interpretation

No one questions whether Darbybelieved and practiced a literal method of interpretation. However, hishermeneutic is more sophisticated than many casual observers recognize. Darbybelieved in literal interpretation in the sense that the 1290 days of Daniel 12were really days, in contrast to the host of historicists in his day who sawthem as years. Darby thought that this kind of "spiritualization" of the textcould only be used to support human ideas.

Elmore notes that "when it comesto evaluating any interpretation of Scripture or theological formulation,"Darby "seems to admit two levels of evidence: (1) direct statements ofScripture, and (2) deductions from direct statements of Scripture" (131). Likemost literalists, Darby did not believe in "wooden literalism" that disallowsfigures of speech, typology, and the theology of the Bible to guide exegesis. Rather, he followed "a literal, face-value approach to the text," whilemaintaining "a balance between detailed exegesis and biblical theology of booksand writers, always having the progressive nature of revelation in mind"(198-99). "Darby believed that the language of the Old Testament allowed foradditional theological content to be revealed later, but no redefinition of itstheological content" (198) as do many covenant theologians.

Dispensations, Israel, and the Church

From his earliest days, Darby,like Graves, believed not only in the future conversion of the Jews, but alsorestoration to their homeland. By taking promises to both Israel and thechurch literally, Darby thought that God's single plan of salvation isharmonized for God's two peoples-Israel and the church. Israel, God's earthlypeople, are destined to rule over the Nations with Christ before theirresurrection. The Church, God's heavenly people, will reign with Christ in thesame kingdom, but in resurrection bodies.

Darby's distinction betweenGod's plan for Israel and the Church formed the basis for his mostcontroversial contribution to Evangelical Christianity-the pretribulationrapture of the Church. Even strong opponents to this doctrine admit that it islogical if God is going to literally fulfill His ancient promises to Israel. The Church must be removed before God resumes His work with Israel, enablingthe two programs to fully participate in the millennial kingdom.

Like many before him, Darby sawGod's progressive revelation of His plan in terms of dispensations. Unlike C.I. Scofield, Darby did not begin his first dispensation until after Noah'sflood.

Darby's view of the church wascrucial to his development of dispensationalism, especially his view (shared bymany in his day) of the present ruin of the church. Elmore observed:

By separating any earthlygovernmental concepts from the Anglican doctrine of the one, holy, catholic,apostolic church, Darby maintained a high view of the gathered church withoutaligning it with any race or national government fashioned after Old TestamentIsrael. By emphasizing Pauline uniqueness, he separated the Church unto itsheavenly destiny. (312-13)

Darby is the father ofdispensationalism. "Although he was not a systematic theologian, he was anexpositor of 'dispensational truth.' He synthesized exegetical truths to showthe full story-line of the Bible, God's activity in human history" (Elmore,312). Darby's

employment of the hermeneuticalprinciple of literal interpretation for all of Scripture, including prophecy,naturally led to the distinction between Israel and the Church. This resulted,of course, in the understanding that the hopes of Israel and those of theChurch were of a different nature. (Crutchfield, 341)

Dispensationalism came to NorthAmerica through Darby and other Brethren before the Civil War. After the wardispensational teachings captured the minds of a significant number ofChristian leaders, and by 1875, its distinctives were disseminated throughoutCanada and the United States. Dispensationalism spread through preaching,conferences, the founding of schools, and literature. By the turn of thecentury dispensationalism was well known and quickly became the most popularevangelical system of theology.

Darby made seven trips to theU.S. and Canada between 1862 and 1877 spending a total of seven of thosesixteen years in America. He spent most of that time in Canada and fourAmerican cities: New York, Boston, Chicago, and St. Louis, where many earlyleaders of American dispensationalism lived. Pastors James Hall Brookes(1830-1897) of Walnut Street Presbyterian Church, St. Louis and A.J. Gordon(1836-1895) of Clarendon Street Baptist Church, Boston were patriarchs ofAmerican dispensationalism who came under Darby's influence. It was throughthe ministry of such men, more so than Darby, that dispensationalism spread inAmerica.

James Hall Brookes

The father of Americandispensationalism was James Brookes. He studied at Miami University andPrinceton Seminary, and was one of the first to host Darby at his church. Inthe 1870's, Brookes wrote Maranatha, which was widely distributed and popularized adispensational view of prophecy. Brookes also edited The Truth magazine and chaired theNiagara Bible Conference, both of which played critical roles in spreadingdispensational beliefs among Christian leaders. As a result, he became theaccepted leader of a large circle of pastors, evangelists and Christianworkers. He will perhaps, best be remembered as the man who introduced C.I.Scofield to dispensationalism shortly after his conversion.

Adoniram Judson Gordon

Baptist Pastor A. J. Gordon(1836 -1895), for whom Gordon College and Gordon-Conwell Seminary is named, wasanother early dispensational leader. He was an important leader in theProphecy Conferences and edited The Watchword. Through personal persuasionand his pen, he affected many on the East coast with dispensational views. Gordon lead D. L. Moody to accept dispensationalism.

Arno C. Gaebelein

Arno Gaebelein (1861-1945)migrated to the U.S. from Germany in his youth. Although he was initially apastor, he is best known for his work in Jewish evangelism and as editor of OurHope magazine. Timothy Weber noted of his abilities that Gaebelein "acquired such an expertisein the Talmud and other rabbinic literature and spoke such flawless Yiddishthat he often had a difficult time convincing many of his audiences that he wasnot a Jew trying to 'pass' as a Gentile." (Living in the Shadow, 144)

Gaebelein did much to spread dispensationalismthrough his speaking, books, and magazine Our Hope.

William E. Blackstone

Like many earlydispensationalists, William Blackstone (1841-1935) was also involved in aministry of Jewish evangelists. Blackstone lived in the Chicago area and wasthe "Hal Lindsey " of his day when he wrote the best-selling book Jesus IsComing (1878). Blackstone, even though a Christian, is also viewed as one of the fathers ofthe Zionist movement. He worked constantly for the return of Jews to Israeland lobbied politicians, convened conferences, and raised funds for the cause. "At a 1918 Zionist Conference in Philadelphia, Blackstone was acclaimed a'Father of Zionism.'" (Weber, 140) In 1956, Israel dedicated a forest in hishonor. Weber says of this unique Jewish-Christian relationship,dispensationalists "were able to stress the evangelization of the Jews while atthe same time they supported Jewish nationalistic aspirations" (141).

Cyrus Ingerson Scofield

Kansas attorney C.I. Scofield(1843-1921), was converted to Christ at age 36. Later, during the 1880's inSt. Louis, James Brookes discipled Scofield teaching him dispensationalism. Anordained Congregationalist, Scofield, pastored both Congregational andPresbyterian churches. He also was active in missions and founded the CentralAmerican Mission. He is well-known as a systematizer and popularizer ofdispensationalism through his widely-known and controversial ScofieldReference Bible(1909). His work has done more to spread dispensationalism throughout theEnglish-speaking world than anything else. However, dispensationalism wasalready a growing movement before Scofield. His Bible simply made it morepopular. Scofield was highly regarded in dispensational circles and hisinfluence remains to this day.

Lewis Sperry Chafer

Presbyterian Bible teacher LewisChafer (1871-1952), Scofield's disciple, culminated his ministry with thepublication of an eight-volume dispensational systematic theology. Chafersystemized dispensationalism and spread its influence through founding DallasSeminary (The Evangelical Theological College) in 1924. Dallas has been thecenter of dispensationalism for seventy years and has many well-known faculty,among them: E.F. Harrison, A.T. Pierson, H.A. Ironside, Henry Thiessen, J.Vernon McGee, Merrill Unger, Charles Feinberg, Lewis Johnson, John Walvoord,Charles Ryrie, Dwight Pentecost, Howard Hendricks, and Norman Geisler. Well-known graduates include Hal Lindsey and Charles Swindoll. Chafer andDallas Seminary have been the largest single influence for spreadingdispensationalism in Christian higher education.

From a human perspective thereare many reasons why dispensationalism has grown to become a dominant force inAmerican religious life in less than seventy-five years. First, it grewbecause many believers were dissatisfied with dominate views of prophecy at theend of the 1800's. Postmillennialism was the popular view of eschatology, butincreasingly things did not appear to be following its optimistic script. Premillennialism seemed to provide a more realistic explanation. The dominatehistoricist premillennialism, with its date-setting and current eventsspeculation, fell into disfavor, while dispensationalism's "any-moment" view ofthe rapture provided a more sensible premillennialism.

Second, dispensationalism had atailor-made answer to a growing technological society. As life became morecomplicated, so did explanations of God's plan for history in dispensationalcharts. This era appreciated complicated and logical explanations.

Third, with the rise ofliberalism in denominational churches, dispensationalism provided answers tothese attacks. Liberalism denied the historical veracity of Scripture with itsliteral interpretation and dispensational distinctions. Dispensationalismallowed a layman to answer liberal ministers thru Scofield's notes. Thepremillennial view of the Church Age ending in apostasy appeared to be comingto pass in the rise of liberalism and was very appealing.

Fourth, dispensationalism fitnicely with the growth of verse-by-verse Bible exposition. This was evidencedby the rise of interdenominational Bible conferences such as Niagara.

Fifth, dispensational theologyfurnished a reasonable explanation for how God could be sovereign over a worldthat seemed to be increasingly evil. Americans had difficulty retainingpostmillennial optimism in view of the Civil War and World War I, thedevelopment of slums, immigration, rising crime, big business, and other socialconditions related to industrialization. Dispensationalism made sense to manyCalvinists who were pessimistic about individual human nature and it followedthat society as a whole was in the same condition. Just as individualsalvation requires a miracle from heaven, so would society if it were to bechanged. Kraus noted that dispensationalism emerged from within the womb "oforthodox Calvinism." (Dispensationalism in America, 60).

Taking all this intoaccount, it must still be pointed out that the basic theological affinities ofdispensationalism are Calvinistic. The large majority of the men involved inthe Bible and prophetic conference movements subscribed to Calvinistic creeds."(59)

Finally, a very important appealof dispensationalism was its view about the restoration of Jews to Israel inthe last days. Dispensationalism's view of the two peoples of God, Israel andthe church, appealed to those who placed importance upon God's future plan forIsrael.

Dispensationalism has alwaysbeen a growing and developing theology. However, since World War II, there hasbeen some decline. Some causes include: the revival of posttribulationism,attacks from covenant theology, the rise of dominion theology andpostmillennialism, the philosophical shift toward idealism which negativelyimpacts literal interpretation, a drive for consensus within Evangelicalscholarship, the push for ecumenical unity, the overall decline of interest indoctrine, and finally, attacks launched from some Pentecostals and Charismaticswho once were dispensational. Yet, all is not gloom and doom anddispensationalism is not dying. It is has experienced a resurgence of interestwithin the evangelical academic community and it continues to be a populartheology with great influence upon the Christian world.